ARC 27

72:
CONSTRUCTIO
ON II – Te
echnique
es
Ar. Mujtabba Ahsan, Archh.D, CEA, MIABB
Associate Professor
P
Departmen nt of Architecture | North So
outh Universityy

0 Lo
Chapter 05: oads on Bu
uildin
ngs
Buildings are subjected
d to several tyypes of loads but the two main classificcations are:
• Gravity or verttical loads
• Laateral loads or
o horizontal loads
l

Page 1 of 42
Gravity lo
oads include but
b are not lim
mited to:
• Materials
M and components of the buildin
ng (beam, collumn, slab, w
wall, etc.)
• Peeople
• Fu urniture, equipment
• Rainwater, sno ow

Lateral loads on buildings include but

b are not lim
mited to:
• Wind
W
• Eaarthquake
• Eaarth pressuree on basemen nt walls
• Water
W pressurre on tank walls
• Lo b blasts and moving vehiccles or equipm
oads caused by ment

(A) DEAD
D LOADS
 Dead loads do no ot vary with h time and typically
t inclu
ude the weigghts of the materials an
nd
compponents of building structu
ure

 For exxample, the dead load on

n a column includes the weight
w of thee column itseelf plus all th
he
dead load imposedd on it

(B) LIIVE LOADS

 Live lo
oad is defineed as the load
d whose maggnitude and placement
p change with tim
me. Such load
ds
are duue to the weights of peoplle, furniture, movable equ
uipment, and stored materrials.

Page 2 of 42
4
 Further divided intto:

• Flloor live load: that depend

ds on the occu
upancy and the use of the building, it iss also called
th
he occupancyy load

• Roof live load:

o RA
AIN LOAD

 Roofss are designeed to have adequate drainage so th hat water do oes not accu umulate, load ds
resultting from acccidental accum
mulation of rainwater
r mu
ust be consideered as a posssibility. Drain
ns
may bbe blocked byy windblown d debris on thee roof

 Generally, roofs with slope greater

g thann ¼ in 1 feet (1:50 slope) are not subjected tto
accum
mulated rainw
water unless roof
r drains arre blocked

o W
WIND LOAD

 Wind loads are primarily horizo

ontal, but cann exert an up
pward force o
on flat and lo ow‐slope rooffs.
Resisttance against upward wind
d force is provided by anch
horing the bu
uilding to its foundations.
f

 Resisttance againstt horizontal lo

oads requiress anchorage to
t foundation
ns and the usse of stiffenin
ng
elemeents called wiind‐bracings

Page 3 of 42
4
Horizzontal Loads and Constru
C uction System
ms of
Build
dings
Some spatial variation of wind pressure:

hat affect the wind pressurre on a building:

Factors th

• Height abo
ove ground

Page 4 of 42
4
• Exposure classification of the site

Page 5 of 42
 • Enclosure classification
n of the building (partially enclosed or ffully enclosed
d)

 Fo
orces on Tall Buildings

As buildin
ngs get taller, the impact of
o lateral forcces – wind an
nd earthquakee in particulaar become very
importantt componentts of the design. Thereforee, special con nsiderations must be giveen to wind an nd
earthquakke loading onn tall structurees. Just remember:

 Eaarthquake loaad conditionss become more critical witth building weeight

 W
Wind load con
nditions becom me more critiical with increease of building height

ntal shear, (c) Vertical sheaar, (d) Bucklin

(a) Flexural failuree, (b) Horizon ng

Page 6 of 42
4
Even if a wind
w load is not
n strong en nough to collaapse a buildin
ng’s structure, large lateral drifts or swaay
due to wiind is very criitical for design, because large scale eaarthquakes mmay be less frrequent events
than frequuent high speeed wind gustts on a tall bu
uilding.

The user comfort of building

b swayy called lateraal drift is meaasured by the minimum allowed
a laterral
drift indicces as below:

 Th
he drift indeex is defined as the ratio o of the maxximum lateraal top displaccement of th
he
building to thee building heiight (Δ/H). Th
he maximum value preferred is 1/500 of the buildin
ng
heeight

 Thhe inter‐storyy drift index iss the ratio of the lateral displacement o
of the ceiling relative to th
he
flo
oor divided by
b the floor‐to o‐floor heightt (Δ/h). The maximum
m valu
ue preferred isi 1/400–500

The wind loads affectin

ng the buildin
ng and the strructural respo
onse of the building depen
nd on the
following factors:

 Th
he characteristics of the w
wind
 Th
he building siize and geometry
 Th
he stiffness of
o the buildingg and the disttribution of th
he building mass
m
 Th
he inherent damping
d charracteristics of the structuraal system and
d of the consttruction
m
material, which dissipates wind‐induced
w d building swaay
 Th
he surroundin ng topographhy, neighborin ng buildings, etc.
 Th
he orientation (position) of
o the buildingg with respecct to the prevailing wind diirection

Wind indu
uced oscillatiion

Wind indu uced oscillatiions of a slen

nder buildingg typically depends on two important aspects of thhe
building fform: (1) heigght to width ratio of morre than 5 and d (b) natural frequency of
o the building.
There aree three forms of wind induced motion as a follows:

a. Galloping ‐ gaalloping is traansverse vibrrations due to the aerodyynamic forces which are in
phase with thee motion. It progressivelyy increases in of transverse vibration witth
n amplitude o
ncrease of win
in nd speed. This type of osccillation occurs more with non‐circular cross‐section
ns
off buildings

b. Fllutter ‐ flutter is a to‐an

nd‐fro motion of a building caused by
b wind forcces and elasttic
deeformation ofo the structurre.

Page 7 of 42
4
Wind forcces that act on buildings arre:

1. Gust: the wind d velocity at any

a location vary considerably with tim me between steady period ds
an
nd gusts whicch last for few
w seconds. Th
he peak gustss typically occcur over an average time of
o
3..5 to 15 secon
nds

2. Vortex Shedd ding: when wind

w acts on orces and moments in three mutuallly
n a body, fo
peerpendicular directions are which three are translation and threee
a generated ‐ out of w
ro
otations

3. O
Of these six, two – the forrce and moment along thee vertical axiss (lift and yaw
wing momen
nt)
arre of little im
mportance. The
T importan nt issues to consider are along wind response an
nd
trransverse win nd response o
of the buildingg

Alongg wind responnse refer to drag

d forces, and
a the crossw wind responsse causes mo otion in a plan
ne
perpeendicular to the
t direction of wind calleed vortex she edding and ggalloping. Thee frequency ofo
sheddding dependss mainly on shape
s and sizze of the structure, veloccity of flow and
a to a lesseer
degreee on surface roughness, turbulence of flow.

Figure: W
Wind‐induced building
b motiion can essen
ntially be divid
ded into threee types: (1) along‐wind, (2
2)
across‐wind and (3) torsional motio
on

Page 8 of 42
4
Factors to
o consider in Tall Building Design

1. Earthquake loads increase

i with building weight
2. Wind loads increasse with buildiing height
3. Wind loads play a decisive role in the design n of tall buildings
4. Large lateral drift (sway)
( is more critical than
n that from earthquake loaads

 The drift index is defined

d as thee ratio of the maximum latteral top disp placement of the building tto
uilding heightt (Δ/H). The maximum
the bu m valu
ue preferred is 1/500 of th
he building heeight

 The innter‐story drift index is th

he ratio of th
he lateral displacement off the ceiling relative to th
he
divided by the floor‐to‐floor height (Δ/h). The maxim
floor d mum value prreferred is 1/400–500

NAMIC ARCHIITECTURAL DESIGN

AERODYN D

1. Buildiing orientatiion: orienting (positionin ng) the build

ding accordin
ng to the prevailing win nd
directtion can reduuce between 10–20 per ceent of the across‐wind bu uilding respon
nse by rotatin
ng
the buuilding to within 10º of thee wind direction

2. Aeroddynamic form m: cylindrical, elliptical, conical

c and twisted
t form
ms are amongg the efficien nt
building forms because have a smaller surrface perpend dicular to thee wind direction, the win
nd
pressure is less thaan in prismatic buildings. For
F buildings having circular plan form,, the wind loaad
is abo
out 20 per cennt less, compaared with buiildings havingg a rectangulaar plan form

 Symmmetry: buildinngs with symmmetrical plan exhibit greater structural efficiency under lateral
loads than buildinggs with asymm
metrical plans

 Dimensional asym mmetry: a building with a rectangular

r pllan exhibits greater
g sensitivity to wind
loads than buildinggs with circulaar, elliptical, or
o triangular plans

 Cost SSaving: some three dimensional buildinng geometries are inheren ntly more stro
ong due to
their sshape and thereby, exhibit improved sttructural efficciency and heelp to reduce the
construction cost and
a sometimees operationaal cost

 Structturally stron
nger forms: ccurved (cresccent) or zigzzag plans inccrease the sttiffness of th he
building against lateral loads. The
T behavior of these form ms against latteral loads is as effective aas
the beehavior exhib
bited by foldeed plates against vertical lo
oads

Page 9 of 42
4
 Note that the desiggner must choose the best approach with
w individual design proje
ects

3. Taperring, Setbackk & Twistingg: varying the building plan

p results ffrom the varriation in plaan
dimennsions or shape throughouut the height of the buildin
ng and can bee achieved byy:

a. reeducing the plan

p area
b. chhanging the plan
p shape

Plan vvariation by reducing

r the plan area towward the top of the buildiing results in a reduction in
urface area afffected by the wind at thee upper levelss of the building, which lesssens the win
the su nd
intenssity and thus the excess pressure.
p The reduction inn the plan areea of the building as it risees
can be in the form of:

a. taapering
b. seetbacks

ng the plan by changing the plan shaape at variou

Varyin us levels throughout the height of thhe
building causes a corresponding change in n the vortexx shedding efffect, which disorients th
he
acrosss‐wind vortices and breakss up their orgganization

4. Perforated top: create

c an aerodynamic fo orm near thee top of thee building. Th hese elements
includ
de approachees such as tap
pering the upp
per part of th
he building byy progressivelly reducing th
he

Page 10 of 42
4
 plan aarea and/or providing
p win
nd openings. To reduce thhe across‐winnd response of
o the building,
the opptimum locattion for the along‐wind op ween 80 per cent and 90 peer
penings is possitioned betw
of the building height
cent o

5. Softened corners: modification ns to corner geometry

g by means
m of recessed/notcheed, cut, slotteed
and rounded corn ners reduce the across wind building response,
r as compared with
w an origin nal
building shape with sharp corneers. A chamfeered (recessed/notched orr cut) corner, which reducees
the width
w of the building
b by 10
0 per cent commpared with a sharp corn ner, reduces the
t along‐win nd
building response by 40 per cent and the across wind building response by 30 per cent. Th he
corneer softening sh
hould extendd about 10 per cent of the building widtth in from thee corner.

6. Usingg Dampers A certain

c level of
o inherent daamping in thee structure caan be achieveed in a buildin
ng
whichh is affected by:
b

 th
he structural system
 th
he materials used
u in the sttructural systeem
 th
he cladding annd non‐structtural elementts such as inteerior and exteerior partition walls
 th
he soil‐structu
ure interactioon

Auxiliary damping
d systems can be divided
d into fo
our groups:
 paassive systemms
 acctive systemss
 seemi‐active sysstems
 hyybrid systemss

Page 11 of 42
4
For design
n stability, bu
uildings up to 40 stories caan use the folllowing structtural systemss without goin
ng
for more complicated
c ones:
 Rigid frame sysstems
 Fllat plate/slab systems
 Co ore systems
 Sh hear wall systtems

For design
n stability of buildings
b morre than 40 sto
ories the follo
owing systems are used:
 Sh hear‐frame syystems
 Sh hear trussed frame (braced frame) systtems
 Sh hear walled frame systems

Page 12 of 42
4
  Mega column (mega frame, space truss)) systems
M
 M
Mega core systems
 O
Outrigger fram
me systems
 Tuube systems
 Frramed‐tube systems
s
 Trrussed‐tube systems
s
 Bundled‐tube systems

o EA
ARTHQUAKE LOAD

Earthquakke Intensity is commonlyy measured on o the Richter scale a method

m deviseed in 1935 b
by
Professor Charles Rich
hter. The scale begins at zero
z but has no
n upper limit, the severeest earthquakke
recorded to date on th
his scale beingg 9.0.

Earthquakke load typicaally depends on:

o
• Ground motion
• Building’s mass and ductilitty of the strucctural frame
• Tyype of soil
• Building occup pancy’s risk caategory

Page 13 of 42
4
Recorded earthquakess in Bangladessh in last one hundred yeaars

DATE NAME M
MAG EPICENTTER

8 July, 1918 Srimangal eartthquake 7.3 Bangladdesh‐Tripura boorder

9 Septemb ber, 1923 Meghalaya earthquake 7.1 Bangladdesh‐India bordder (Meghalayya)
2 Septemb ber, 1930 Dubri earthquake 7.1 Dabigirii
6 March, 11933 India Bangladeesh earthquakee 7.6 India Baangladesh bordder
15 Januaryy, 1934 Bihar Nepal eaarthquake 8.3 Bihar‐Nepal border
11 Februarry, 1936 Bihar earthquaake 7.5 North BBihar
16 August,, 1938 Manipur Earth hquake 7.2 Monipu ur near of Banggladesh
23 October, 1943 Assam earthqu uake 7.2 Hojai Asssam
21 March, 1954 Monipur‐Maynmar earthquaake 7.4 Monipu ur‐Maynmar bo order
21 Novemb ber, 1997 Bandarban earthquake 7.1 Mizoram m‐Maynmar bo order
26 Decemb ber, 2004 Cox’s Bazar eaarthquake 7.0 Bonda A Aceh, Indonesia
12 Septem mber, 2007 Tsunami due eearthquake (Coox’s Bazar) 8.5 Bengkula, Sumatra

• Comm
mon structuraal considerations for earth
hquake safe design
d

Page 14 of 42
4
Page 15 of 42
Vertical Loa
ads and Constructio
on Sysstems of
o
Build
dings

Typical Bu
uilding Constrruction System
ms:

1. Wood Light‐Frame Construction

W
2. Sttructural Insu
ulated Panel Construction
C
3. Sttructural Steeel Constructio
on
4. Coold‐Formed (Light‐Gauge) Steel Construction
5. Cooncrete Consstruction (sitee‐cast and preecast concrete framing sysstems)
6. M
Masonry Construction (morrtar and brickk)
7. M
Masonry Construction (concrete masonrry units, natu ural stone, andd glass mason
nry units)
8. M
Masonry and Concrete
C Bearing Wall Connstruction

1. Concrrete Construcction (site‐casst and precasst concrete frraming system

ms)

Figure: load transfer process in a RC

CC structure

Page 16 of 42
4
 (A) FLLOOR SYSTEM
M

Elevated ffloor slabs in a reinforced concrete framing system typically restt on beams as shown in th he
diagram below
b or mayy rest directlyy on columnss. The case off the ground floor howeveer varies and if
possible, the floor maay directly rest on the gro ound. This is commonly called
c a slab on grade. Thhe
diagram b below shows different stru uctural suppo
ort conditionss of elevated sslabs. The gro
ound floor slaab
will be sho
own later in this
t chapter.

ELEVATED
D SLABS

Page 17 of 42
4
 O way slab
One

If the ratio of the long dimensio on to the shorrt dimension of a four‐sidee‐supported slab
s panel is
greateer than or equal to 2.0, mo ost of the load on the slab
b is transferreed to the long pair of
beam ms, that is, the
e load path is along the shoort dimension
n of the slab p panel

The lo
oad path alonng the long dimension of th he slab is neggligible. Becau
use the load is effectively
transfferred along one
o direction b behaves as a one‐way slaab.
n in Figure 23..2 (c), the slab

The reeinforcementt (iron rods) in

n a one‐way slab
s is placed
d along the short direction.

Page 18 of 42
4
  Tw
wo way slab::

o of the long to the short dimension

If the ratio d off a four‐side‐ssupported slab panel is lesss than 2.0, th
he
slab is connsidered to behave as a twwo‐way slab. However,
H reaal two‐way slaab behavior occurs
o when
the ratio of
o the two dimmensions is as
a close to 1.0 0 as possible (between
( 1.0
0 and 1.25). In
n a two‐way
slab, bothh directions participate in ccarrying the load. Reinforccement is, theerefore, provided in both
directionss as primary reinforcemen
r t.

 Beam‐and‐Girder Floors

One‐way and two‐wayy solid slabs become increaasingly thick and a hence un neconomical asa their span
increases.. Generally, th
he use of a slab thicker thaan 8 inches iss discouraged
d because it crreates a largee
d on the floor.
dead load

For a onee‐way slab, ann 8‐inch slab thickness is reached withh a span of appproximatelyy 16 feet. For a
square tw
wo way slab, a span of app proximately 242 feet requirres an 8‐inch‐‐thick slab. Be
ecause 16‐feeet
and 24‐feeet dimensions are relativvely small fo or column sppacing, one‐wway and two‐‐way slabs are
generally used in a beaam‐and‐girdeer floor, or in a two‐way beeam‐and‐girder floor.

 Band Beam Flo

oor

A concreete floor thaat cannot bee constructed d with a flaat form deck becomes uneconomicaal.
Thereforee, the floor systems
s showwn in the figu
ure below arre relatively uuncommon because
b of th
he
complexitty of the formmwork resultting from deeep beams around slab paanels. A one‐‐way slab floo or
with widee and shallo ow, continuo ous beams, referred
r to as band beaams (in conttrast with th he
conventioonal narrow beams),
b givess more econo omical formw work. Because the beamss are wide, th he
slab span is reduced, reducing
r the slab thicknesss. Additionally, because tthe beams arre shallow, th
he
floor‐to‐flloor height is smaller, reeducing the height
h of columns, interiior partitionss, and exterio
or
cladding.

Page 19 of 42
4
  O
One‐Way Joistt Floor

An extremmely econommical formwork based con ncrete floor has closely sspaced, narro ow ribs in on
ne
direction supported on
n beams in th
he other direcction called a joist floor or a ribbed floor.
o Sttandard‐module (20 to 30 inches wide)) one‐way joisst floor
o Wide‐module
W (53 to 66 inch
hes wide) onee‐way joist flo
oor

Page 20 of 42
4
  Tw
wo‐Way Joistt Floor (Wafffle Slab)

A two‐waay joist floor,, also called a waffle slab

b, consists off joists in botth directions.. A waffle slaab
han a one‐waay joist floor. It is, thereffore, used wh
yields a stiffer floor th here the coluumn‐to‐colum mn
spacing liees between 353 and 50 feet. A waffle slaab is best suitted for square or almost square column‐
to‐column n bays.

Page 21 of 42
4
• Beam
mless Concrete
e Floors

A waffle slab
s is more commonly constructed
c a a beamlesss slab. In a beamless
as b wafffle slab, a feew
domes on n all sides of a column aree omitted so that the thicckness of thee slab at the columns is th he
same as tthe depth of the
t joists. The thickening of the slab at the columnns provides shhear resistancce
(against th
he slab punchhing through the columns)).

Page 22 of 42
4
• Flat P
Plate

A flat platte consists off a solid slab supported directly on columns. Therefore, the spans that can be b
achieved economicallyy with a flat‐p plate floor aree smaller than those obtaained from on ne‐way or two o‐
way joist floors. Flat‐pplate slabs aree suitable forr occupanciess with relativvely light live loads, such aas
hotels, appartments, an nd hospitals, where small column‐to‐ccolumn spacing does nott pose a majo or
design coonstraint. Add ditionally, a drop
d ceiling iss not required in these occcupancies an nd HVAC duccts
can be ru un within the e corridors, where
w a low
wer ceiling heeight is accepptable. A slab thickness of o
approximately 6 inch is generally needed
n for 15‐feet
1 by 15‐feet columnn bays and ap pproximately 8
inch for 20‐feet by 20‐feet bays with residential loads.

• Flat Slab
A flat slab
b is similar to
o a flat plate, but it has column heads, referred to aas drop panells. The primary
purpose o of drop paneels is to provvide greater shear resistaance at the columns, wh here the shear
maximizes. Structurallyy, the drop paanel must exttend a minim mum of one‐sixth of the slaab span in eacch
direction, and its drop below the slab must at 5% of the slab thickness. A flat slab is
a least be 25

Page 23 of 42
4
generally used where the live loads are relativvely high, su
uch as in parking garages or storage o
or
industrial facilities.

• Postte
ensioned Elevated Concreete Floors

The reinfoorced‐concrete elevated‐sslab systems described previously can also be postttensioned. Th he

posttensio bs reduces slab and beam
oning of slab m dimensionss, reducing the dead load d of the floo
or.
Generallyy, the postten
nsioning tend dons in a slabb are distribuuted in a ban
nded arrangeement and are
grouped ttogether alonng the supporrt lines in onee direction, an
nd bands of tendons
t are placed
p at equ
ual
spacing in
n the transverrse direction.

Page 24 of 42
4
 Pre‐tensioned system Post‐tenssioned system
m

PRECAST CONCRETE

oncrete members are fabrricated in a prrecast plant and

Precast co a transported to the con nstruction sitee
for assem ng is helpful in climates that limit the use of site‐cast concrete an
mbly. Precastin nd the cost off
formworkk and shoring is considerab bly reduced.

Page 25 of 42
4
• Precasting also allo
ows greater quality
q contro
ol over the sttrength of con
ncrete and su
urface finishees.
Precast elements used
u as horizo
ontal framingg members arre generally prestressed
p (p
pretensioned)).

• Precast concrete also has m many disadvvantages. Itss main disadvantage is the cost of
transpportation. Annother disadvvantage of prrecasting is th
he need for h
heavier hoisting equipmen nt
at thee construction
n site and add
ditional safetyy measures th
hat must be observed
o during erection.

• A building can be constructed of all precasst concrete mmembers or w with some elements of th
he
building consistingg of precast co
oncrete mem
mbers, while the others aree of cast‐in‐place

• Hollow
w‐Core Slabss and Solid Planks

ore slabs are precast,

Hollow‐co p presttressed concrrete slabs thaat contain voids in their central region.
The voids reduce the dead
d load of the
t slab by 40 0% to 50% compared with a sitecast concrete slab fo or
the same span.

• Double‐Tee Units

A typical section throu ugh a doublee‐tee unit is shown

s below
w. Double‐teee units are ussed where th he
spans are large and cannot be provvided econom mically with site‐cast concrrete constructtion or hollow
w‐
core slabss. They are coommonly used d for hotel an
nd bank lobbiies. Another ccommon use of double‐teees
is in multiistory parkingg garages, wh
here a minimum distance of 60 feet beetween colum mns is generallly
necessaryy.

Page 26 of 42
4
• Invertted‐Tee Beam
ms

nverted‐tee beams are gen

Precast in nerally used as
a supporting members forr hollow‐coree slabs or
double‐teee units. Like hollow‐core slabs
s and dou
uble‐tee unitss, they are preestressed. They are
commonlyy used in totaal precast con
nstruction

Page 27 of 42
4
 Flloor Slab on Grade

Page 28 of 42
Page 29 of 42
  RCC BEAMS

Beams are rigid structural memberrs designed to

o carry and transfer transvverse loads across
a space tto
supportin
ng elements.

Page 30 of 42
4
Page 31 of 4
42
 Tyypical forces acting on a beam

Page 32 of 42
Page 33 of 42
  RCC COLUMNSS

Columns are rigid, reelatively slen nder structural memberss designed p primarily to support axiial
compresssive loads app plied to the en
nds of the meembers. Relattively short, tthick columnss are subject tto
failure byy crushing rather than by buckling.
b Failure occurs w
when the direct stress from m an axial loaad
exceeds tthe compresssive strength of the materrial available in the cross section. An eccentric
e load,
however, can produce bending and d result in an uneven
u stresss distribution in the section.

 Various types of column seections can beb designed, typically verttical load beaaring elements
arre classified as
a columns, sh
hear walls and composite elements

Page 34 of 42
4
 A column is tyypically a recctangular eleement with lo onger dimension less thaan 4 times thhe
sh
horter dimen
nsion. When thist dimensio on is larger than
t 4 times it is considered as a shear
w
wall

 Co
omposite walls are those that
t typically have a shearr wall at one eend

Page 35 of 42
4