Introduction

All structures are composed of a number of

interconnected elements.
They enable the internal/external loads to be safely
Structural Analysis transmitted down to the ground, e.g.
– slabs

b
Structural Loads & Responses – beams
– columns
– walls
– foundations

1 2

Sequence of load transfer Sequence of load transfer – load path

From roof slab to beam

From beam Transfer of loading

to column

From floor slab to beam Tributary

From beam
to column

River
From column
to foundation

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It is usually assumed that the reaction from
one element is a load on the next 3 4
 The design process 6

The designer must make an assessment of the future

likely level of loading to which the structure may be
subjected during its design life.
Determination of design loads acting on the structure

Determination of design loads on individual elements

Nature of loading & design loads
Calculation of bending moments, shear forces and
deflections of beams

Sizing of beams

Sizing of columns

Nature of loading & design loads Nature of loading & design loads
The loads acting on a structure are divided into
different basic types:
Probability density function

– dead load
Characteristic

– live load
– wind load
Mean load

load

– earthquake load
– loading from 5%

曧
1.64
other sources Live load Seismic
Fm Fk Load disturbance
For each type, the characteristic and design values
must be estimated Slow variations Rapid variations

7 8

⽤ 啊 range
 Nature of loading & design loads Nature of loading & design loads
Rapid variations Slow variations

Foundation
settlement Impact
Wind load Temperature load
Slow variations Rapid variations
(gusts) (shrinkage?)
9 10

Nature of loading & design loads Nature of loading & design loads
It is usually assumed that the dynamic loads Wind Live load
on the building structures can be reduced to load Combination
equivalent static loads, e.g. of loading
LL uniform design load (on buildings)
basic LL + impact allowance (on bridges)
WL equivalent static load
Max
axial Most adverse 㙸
(kN/m2 of exposed surface area) load effects 髊的
EQL equivalent static load The designer will have to determine the particular 情 了是
(% of gravity load) combination of loading which is likely to produce
Others: essentially STATIC the most adverse effect on the structure in terms of
bending moments, shear forces, deflections, etc.
11 12
 13

Dead Loads (DL)

DLs are all the permanent loads acting on the
structure including:
– self-weight
Dead Loads (DL) – finishes
– fixtures
– partitions

14

Dead Loads (DL) Dead Loads (DL)

Estimation of the self-weight of an element Assume a cross-section
– cyclic process since its value can only be
assessed once the element has been designed
DL
LL Revise
cross-
DL LL BM, SF, etc
section

Check if OK
No
Yes
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15 16
 Live Loads (LL)
17

Imposed load or live load represents the load due

to the proposed occupancy and includes:
– the weights of the occupants and furniture
– roof loads including snow
Imposed Loads (IL) / Live Loads (LL)
They are much more variable than DL, and are
more difficult to predict

18

Live Loads (LL) Live Loads (LL)

Heavy live loads are rare It is possible to concentrate a heavy load over a
rather small area (0.2-0.6 m2) amounting to, say,
There are a few medium live loads 25 or 50 kN/m2 on that small area.

Most of the live loads are light

Bigger equivalent UDL!

19 20
 Live Loads (LL)
When a large tributary area (over 10 or 15 m2) is
supported by a primary structural component, the
significance of that concentration as compared
with the overall load will be reduced
correspondingly
Live Loads (LL)
An average design load value can be assigned
when the actual or probable type of building
occupancy is known
– basic live load for application when considering
the larger tributary areas
For smaller areas, the effect of concentrated live
load should be considered as a special case

Smaller equivalent UDL

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21 22

Live Loads (LL) Live Loads (LL)

Loading on a one-way slab supported on four Column
beams (approximate model) Primary beam Medium tributary
area of a corner
Secondary beam column
˙

,
Large tributary area Small tributary area
23
of a primary beam of a secondary beam
24
 Wind Loads (WL)
25

Wind load on a building is dynamic, but it is

conveniently expressed as equivalent static load in
kN/m2 of exposed surface area

Wind Loads (WL) Wind loads vary with wind speed, surface shape,
exposed area, etc

Wind pressure primarily depends on

– its velocity
– the slope and shape of the surface
– the protection from wind offered by other structures

26

Wind Loads (WL) Wind Loads (WL)

Wind pressure can either add to the other Examples of wind-sensitive structures:
gravitational forces acting on the structure or, – long-span bridges (suspension bridges and
equally well, exert suction or negative pressures cable-stayed bridges)
on the structure – tall buildings
Wind
– slender towers
Positive
Suction or Wind tunnel tests are often needed
negative
pressure pressure

Shattered curtain walls of buildings in

Wanchai after Typhoon York in 1999 (from The Structural Engineer
Hong Kong Observatory / Oriental Daily News)
27 – 15 November 2005 28
 29

Earthquake Loads (EQL)

EQL
– mainly lateral loads produced by earthquake
– dynamic, expressed as % of overall mass or
gravity load (W) of a building
Earthquake Loads (EQL)
The % may vary from

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– 2% to 5% (of W) for tall buildings in moderate
seismic zones
– 10% to 20% for short stiff buildings in active
seismic zones

30

Earthquake Loads (EQL) Earthquake Loads (EQL)

There are two basic objectives in design for Earthquake resistance calls for energy absorption
earthquake: (or ductility) rather than strength only
1. To protect the public from loss of life and
P P
serious injury and to prevent buildings from
collapse and dangerous damage under a
maximum-intensity earthquake
2. To ensure buildings against any but very
minor damage under moderate to heavy Brittle Ductile
earthquakes
No good! Desirable!

31 32
 33
Int. & ext. movement in structures
Internal movements or strains in a structure
can be produced as a result of differential
movement due to temperature variation
Internal & External Movements across the structure.
in Structures Other sources:
- shrinkage
- foundation settlement

34

Int. & ext. movement in structures Int. & ext. movement in structures
If a structure is entirely free to expand and Different parts of a building will be exposed to,
contract under temperature changes, then and will respond differently to, environmental
conditions Hot
there may be no internal stresses produced.
Uniform rise Stresses induced

⼑
in temperature

Hot
Linear distribution
of temperature Cold Stresses induced
Hot Hot
No stress induced Cold
35 36
 38
Int. & ext. movement in structures
To minimize the internal stresses and strains,
provisions of expansion joints (or movement
joints) is necessary, particularly along the roof Examples
lines and the outside walls of a building
Such provisions may be unsightly and expensive
Notes:
Movement Movement
joint (MJ) joint 1. Only nominal loads are calculated here.
2. There is no need to apply partial safety factors.
Abutment Bearing Bearing Abutment

Movement joint
3. The estimated loading on individual member is
approximate only.

MJ Bearing Elevation of a large building

37

Example 1 Design loads on a floor beam Example 1 Design loads on a floor beam

5m
5m

3m 3m 3m

3m 3m 3m
Unit weights of materials Example 1: Design loads on a floor beam.

Example 1: Design loads on a floor beam. RC ( = 2400kg/m3, gravitational constant 10m/s2)

A composite floor consisting of a 150 mm thick RC slab – 2400 10 = 24 000 N/m3 = 24 kN/m3
supported on steel beams spanning 5 m and spaced at 3 m Steel beams
centres is to be designed to carry an imposed load of 3.5 per m or
– Unit mass of beam = 50 kg/m run
kN/m2. Assuming that the unit mass of the steel beams is per m run
50 kg/m run, calculate the design loads on a typical – Unit weight of beam
internal beam. = 50 10 = 500 N/m run = 0.5 kN/m run
39 40
 Example 1 Design loads on a floor beam Example 1 Design loads on a floor beam

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啸

5m

5m
ú
Loading 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
Loading
Example 1: Design loads on a floor beam. Example 1: Design loads on a floor beam.
Slab
Total load (each internal beam supports a uniformly
– DL = 0.15 24 = 3.6 kN/m2 distributed load from a 3 m width of slab plus self-
– IL= 3.5 kN/m2 weight)
– Total load = 3.6 + 3.5 = 7.1 kN/m2 Design load on beam = slab load + self-weight of beam
Beam = 7.1 5 3 + 0.5 5 = 109 kN
– DL = 0.5 kN/m run UDL on beam = 109 kN / 5 m = 21.8 kN/m

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41 42

Example 1 Design loads on a floor beam Example 2 Design loads on floor beams and columns
The floor shown below with an overall depth of 225 mm is to be
designed to carry an imposed load of 3 kN/m2 plus floor finishes and
5m
ceiling loads of 1 kN/m2. Calculate the design loads acting on beams
B1-C1, B2-C2 and B1-B3 and columns B1 and Cl. Assume that all
the column heights are 3 m and that the beam and column weights are
3m 3m 3m
70 and 60 kg/m run respectively.
Loading 3
Example 1: Design loads on a floor beam.

Alternatively, UDL on beam can be calculated as 3m

= 7.1 3 + 0.5 2
= 21.8 kN/m
3m

1
3m 6m

A B C
43 Example 2. Design loads on floor beams and columns.
44
Example 2 Design loads on floor beams and columns Example 2 Design loads on floor beams and columns
Unit weights of materials Loading

RC ( = 2400kg/m3, gravitational constant 10m/s2) Slab

– 2400 10 = 24 000 N/m3 = 24 kN/m3 – DL (SW) = 0.225 24 = 5.4 kN/m2
Steel beams – DL (FF) = 1 kN/m2
– Unit mass of beam = 70 kg/m run – Total DL = 5.4 + 1 = 6.4 kN/m2
– Unit weight of beam – IL= 3 kN/m2
= 70 10 = 700 N/m run = 0.7 kN/m run – Total load = 6.4 + 3 = 9.4 kN/m2
Steel columns Beam
– Unit mass of column = 60 kg/m run
– DL = 0.7 kN/m run
– Unit weight of column
= 60 10 = 600 N/m run = 0.6 kN/m run Column
– DL = 0.6 kN/m run
45 46

Example 2 Design loads on floor beams and columns Example 2 Design loads on floor beams and columns
3 3

RB1 RC1 3m RB2 RC2 3m

6m 6m

Beam B1-C1 2 2
Beam B2-C2
3m 3m

1 1
3m 6m 3m 6m

A B C A B C
Example 2. Design loads on floor beams and columns. Example 2. Design loads on floor beams and columns.
Beam B1-C1 Beam B2-C2
Design load on beam B1-C1 Design load on beam B2-C2
= slab load + self-weight of beam = slab load + self-weight of beam
= 9.4 6 1.5 + 0.7 6 = 9.4 6 3 + 0.7 6
= 88.8 kN = 173.4 kN
RB1 = RC1 = 88.8 / 2 = 44.4 kN RB2 = RC2 = 173.4/2 = 86.7 kN
47 48
Example 2 Design loads on floor beams and columns Example 2 Design loads on floor beams and columns

Beam B1-B3
3 3

3m 3m

RB1 RB3
3m 3m 2 Beam A1-B1 Beam B1-C1 2

Beam B1-B3 3m Column B1 3m

1 1
3m 6m 3m 6m

A B C A B C
Beam B1-B3 Example 2. Design loads on floor beams and columns. Column B1 Example 2. Design loads on floor beams and columns.

Design load on beam B1-B3 Beam B1-C1: RB1 = 44.4 kN

= slab load + self-weight of beam + point load RB2 Beam B1-B3: RB1 = 87.75 kN
= (9.4 1.5 6 + 0.7 6) + 86.7 Beam A1-B1: RB1 = 0.7 3 / 2 = 1.05 kN (self-wt only)
= 88.8 + 86.7 = 175.5 kN Column B1 = 0.6 3 = 1.8 kN (self-wt only)
RB1 = RB3 = 175.5/2 = 87.75 kN Total load = = 44.4 + 87.75 + 1.05 + 1.8 = 135 kN
49 50

Example 2 Design loads on floor beams and columns 52

3
Beam C1-C3

3m

2
Beam B1-C1
3m
Column C1

Response of Structures
1
3m 6m

A B C
Column C1 Example 2. Design loads on floor beams and columns.

Beam B1-C1: RC1 = 44.4 kN

Beam C1-C3: RC1 = (86.7 + 4.2)/2 = 45.45 kN
Column C1 = 0.6 3 = 1.8 kN (self-wt only)
Total load = = 44.4 + 45.45 + 1.8 = 91.65 kN

51
 Response of structures Response of structures
The structure Elastic behaviour Plastic behaviour Ultimate
must be able to load

respond with

Plastic
range
Reserve load
proper behaviour capacity
and prescribed

Load
stability

Elastic range of load

Wind or EQ load *

Live load

Dead load

Deflection
Life history of a structure (* only partial or zero live load is
considered together with wind or EQ load).
53 54

Response of structures Response of structures

DL only Elastic behaviour Plastic behaviour Ultimate
WL or EQL Elastic behaviour Plastic behaviour Ultimate
load load
– Very little deflection, – higher forces and
Plastic

Plastic
stresses are produced
range

range
if any, in the lateral Reserve load
capacity
Reserve load
capacity
direction in various
Load

Load
LL + DL components
Elastic range of load

Elastic range of load

Wind or EQ load * Wind or EQ load *

– More deflection and Live load

– one-third or so Live load

higher stresses are increase in allowable

produced locally Dead load stresses is permitted Dead load

since these loads

Deflection occur rather Deflection
Life history of a structure (* only partial or zero live load is Life history of a structure (* only partial or zero live load is
considered together with wind or EQ load). infrequently considered together with wind or EQ load).

55 56
 Response of structures Response of structures
Reserve load capacity Elastic behaviour Plastic behaviour Ultimate Under catastrophic Elastic behaviour Plastic behaviour Ultimate
load load
– takes care of earthquakes, the

Plastic

Plastic
building is permitted

range

range
Reserve load Reserve load
unexpected events, e.g. capacity capacity

high wind (margin of to extend into plastic

Load

Load
safety) range so that certain

Elastic range of load

Elastic range of load

Wind or EQ load * Wind or EQ load *

– keeps the behaviour of Live load portions of the Live load

the structure within building will suffer

tolerable limits of Dead load
minor damage
Dead load

movement and strain

Deflection Deflection
under the normally Life history of a structure (* only partial or zero live load is Life history of a structure (* only partial or zero live load is
expected high wind or considered together with wind or EQ load). considered together with wind or EQ load).

earthquake condition
57 58

The End

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