Chapter -2

BASIC CONCEPTS OF DESIGN

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 2.1 Introduction
The design of a structure for a specific function is a two-stage
process involving:
1st selection of an appropriate type or form ,
2nd the detailed design of the various parts of the chosen structure.
In selecting the type or form of structure:
 the question of the relative costs of different types of structures &
 methods of construction of the same structure will be of great
importance, hence experienced judgment and intuition are must.

 Having selected the type of structure, the detailed design

proceeds, bearing in mind the factors of safety and cost, with the
aesthetic requirements been substantially met in the type selection.

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  In design, the following points have to be taken into
consideration:
 variations in materials in the structure and in test
specimens (d/c in material in the cube test & actual in the
mixer for the structure or rfmt tested and actually used)

 variations in loading (reliability of predicted load)

 constructional inaccuracies

 safety and serviceability (code provision of non-

collapsible structure)
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 2.2 Design Methods
 Design load determination and the corresponding design strength
of materials:
 Permissible stress method (working stress method):
- ultimate strength of the material is divided by a factor of safety to
give safe design stresses, (usually within the elastic range).
 Load factor method (ultimate strength method):
- working loads are multiplied by a factor of safety to obtain
design loads.
 Limit state method:
- working loads are multiplied by partial factors of safety to obtain
design loads and ultimate strengths of materials are divided by
further partial factors of safety to obtain design strengths.

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  In all cases, stresses caused by the design loads must
not exceed the design strength of the material.

 The permissible stress method has proved to be a

simple and useful method, but as it is based on an
elastic stress distribution, it is not entirely applicable to
concrete which is a semi-plastic material.

 It is not suitable when deformations are not

proportional to the load, as in the case of slender
columns.

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  In the load factor method, the ultimate strengths of
the materials are used in the calculations, it does not
apply factors of safety to the materials.

 Furthermore, it cannot be used to calculate deflections

and cracking under working loads.

 The limit state method overcomes most of the

shortcomings of the previous two methods.

 Applies safety factor to both material & load

(considers plastic condition at ULS & elastic
condition under working load)
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2.3 Limit State Principles
A limit state is a condition at w/c a structure becomes unfit for its
intended use.
There are two categories of limit state:
A) The Ultimate Limits State (ULS):-
structure must be able to withstand the design load against
collapse with certain safety factor.
Loading beyond ultimate capacity is associated with failure
certain structural elements or section which in turn may lead to
overall collapse of the structure.

B) Serviceability Limits State (SLS):- is associated with:

 Deflection, Cracking, Durability (in terms of design life and
exposure condition of the structure), Vibration, Fatigue (highly
stressed under cyclic loading), Fire resistance.
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  The purpose of design then is to ensure that the either of the
limit should not reach for the structure being designed.

 Therefore, it is essential to consider each limit state and to

provide a suitable margin of safety in design

 The strengths of construction materials vary, as do also the

loads on the structure, hence two partial safety factors will now
be used (for materials, m and one for loading, f).

 The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and

then to check for the other limit states are satisfied.

 The critical state for reinforced concrete structures is usually

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the ULS. (Why?) RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
 However, water-retaining structures and pre-stressed concrete are
usually designed at the serviceability limit state and then checked
for ULS (Why).
 The limit states failure criteria can be summarized as follows:
 (Design load effects, Qd)  (Design resistance, Rd)
 fQn  fk/ m

Where
Qd = design load effects = f Qn
Qn = nominal load
f = partial safety factor for loads
Rd = design resistance = fk/m
fk = characteristic material strength
m = partial safety factor for materials
 
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 Where
Partial safety factors:
Partial Safety Factors for Materials at ULS.
Concrete, c Reinforcing Steel, s
Design
Situations Class I Class II Class I Class II
Persistent
and 1.50 1.65 1.15 1.20
Transient
Accidental 1.30 1.45 1.00 1.10
Partial Safety Factors for Actions in Building Structures
at ULS.Design
Action Factor,  Favorable Unfavorable
Situation
Persistent Permanent G 1.00 1.30
and
Variable Q 0.00 1.60
Transient
Accidental Permanent G 1.00 1.00
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 2.4 Combination of Loads at Ultimate Limit States
Examples
Class Action
Direct Indirect
Settlement, shrinkage,
Soil pressure, self-weight of structure creep (results from
Permanent
and fixed equipment direct permanent
Time actions)
variation People, wind, furniture, snow, traffic,
Variable Temperature effects
construction loads
Temperature rise
Accidental Explosion, vehicular impact
during fire
Self-weight (generally), trains (fixed
Spatial Fixed -
in direction normal to rails)
variation
Free Persons, office furniture vehicles -
Static All gravity loads -
Static/dyn
amic Engines, turbines, wind on slender
Dynamic -
structures
Closely bounded Water pressure, self weight -
Others Not closely
Snow, people -
bounded
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Design values for actions for use in combination with other actions at
ULS.
Variable actions
Permanent Accidental
Design Situation Principal All other
actions actions
action actions
Favorable 1.0Gk - 0 0
Fundamen
Unfavorab
tal 1.3Gk - 1.6Qk 1.60Qk
le
Accidental 1.0Gk Ad 1.01Qk 1.02Qk

Combination values: Qr = 0Qk

Frequent values: Qr = 1Qk
Qausi-permanent values: Qr = 2Qk

Where, Qr = representative value

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Qk = characteristic value
 Representative load factors, 0, 1, 2.

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Assignment-1 (Submit by 13th August 2011)

Q1. A continuous two span beam is subjected to dead and live

loads as shown in Fig. below. Considering different load
combinations, find the design bending moment and shear force
envelopes for the beam.

Q2.The water tower shown in the figure consists of a container

with self-weigh Gn, supported by a lightweight steel frame. All
loads shown are nominal loads. Assuming the maximum load
factor to be applied to wind load on a free-standing structure is
1.5 and the maximum load factor to be applied to the contained
liquid is 1.3.
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 Give the load combinations and load factors that you will consider
to
(a) investigate uplift at support A
(b) find the maximum compression force in strut BC.
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 Thank you!

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