STRUCTURE LECTURE-II

Structural Requirements and Loads

By Yo n a s A .

STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
When designing a structure, the design working
life of the structure should be specified, and the
following fundamental performance requirements
should be ensured for the specified period.
Safety – Esthetics –
Serviceability -
Environment – Economy
(1) Safety of human life in and around the structure is ensured against
foreseeable actions.
(2) The functions of the structure are adequately ensured against
foreseeable actions acting on structures (Serviceability).
(3) If required, continued use of the structure is feasible against
foreseeable actions by restoration using technologies available within
reasonable ranges of cost and time (Restorability)
Yonas A.
A rectangular frame with four hinges is
capable of achieving a state of equilibrium
but is unstable because any slight lateral
disturbance to the columns will induce it to
collapse. The frame on the right here is
stabilized by the diagonal element which
makes no direct contribution to the resistance
of the gravitational load.
Loads on the building envelope. Gravitational
loads due to snow and to the occupation of
the building cause roof and floor structures to
bend and induce compressive internal forces
in walls. Wind causes pressure and suction
loads to act on all external surfaces.
2

Shear Force : bend or tear a material by
pressing different parts in opposite directions at
the same time. Shear strength measures the
largest shear force the material can withstand
before it rips apart .
A good example of shear force is a simple scissors.
The two handles put force in different directions
on the pin that holds the two parts together. The
force applied to the pin is called shear force.
Yonas A.
Torsion : twist a material by turning the ends in opposite directions.
Torsion strength measures the largest torsion force the material can
withstand and still spring back into its original shape .
The plastic ruler is twisted between both hands. The ruler is said to
be in a state of torsion.
Tension : The rope is in “tension” as the two people pull on it. This
stretching puts the rope in tension. Tensile strength measures the
largest tension force the material can withstand before failing
Compression forces crush a material by squeezing it together.
Compressive strength measures the largest compression force the
material can withstand before it loses its shape or fails
3
Bending is due to the internal moment. Since moment can be resolved into
a couple, the internal moment can be considered as a compression force (C)
and a tensile force (T). The compression force results in compressive stresses
and tensile force in tensile stresses.

Therefore, bending stress is a combination of compressive and tensile stresses

due to internal moments.

Since the stress across a beam section varies from compression to tension,
there is a location at which stress is equal to zero. This is called the “neutral
axis”. For a homogeneous beam the neutral axis passes through its centroid.

4
 • These components will produce the same constant
DEAD LOAD 'dead' load during the lifespan of the building.
Dead loads are exerted in the vertical plane.
Dead load refer to the structure's self weight • Dead load = volume of member x unit weight
of materials
and generally remain constant during
the structure's life. e.g. the weight of the
• Material Unit weight kN/m3
permanent components such as beams, floor
• Plain Concrete 23.5
slabs, columns and walls.
• Reinforced concrete 24
Dead loads are static forces that are • Glass 25.5
relatively constant for an extended time. • Mild steel 77

They can be in tension or compression. • Hardwood 11

• Softwood 8

Yonas A. 5

LIVE LOADS
All unfixed items in a building such as people
and furniture result in a 'live' load on the
structure. Live loads are exerted in the vertical
plane. Live loads, or imposed loads, are
temporary, of short duration, or a moving load.
These dynamic loads may involve
considerations such
as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh
dynamics of fluids and material fatigue.
Live loads are variable as they depend on usage
and capacity.
Yonas A.
• Live loads for floors as per building usage Vs
Uniformly distributed load kPa or kN/m2
• Houses -1.5,
• apartments, motel bedrooms-2.0
• Offices-3.0
• Workshops-5.0
• Parking, vehicle > 2.5 t-5.0
• Hospitals, school assembly areas with fixed seating-
3.0
• Dance halls, bars, lounges-5.0
• N.B Note that kPa and kN/m2 are essentially the
same units.
6
• Volume of beam 10.0 x 0.6 x 0.3 = 1.8 m3

Unit weight of reinforced concrete = 24 kN/m3

Therefore, dead load of beam = volume x unit weight

= 1.8 m3 x 24 kN/m3

= 43.2 kN

7
8
 STRUCTURE?
the arrangement of and
relations between the
parts or elements of
something complex.

By Yonas Assefa 9
 WIND LOADS
Wind loads have become very important in recent
years due to the extensive use of lighter materials and
more efficient building techniques including the
structural design of a modern steel clad.

Wind acts both on the main structure and on the

individual cladding units of a building. The structure
has to be braced to resist the horizontal load and
anchored to the ground to prevent the whole building
from being blown away if the dead weight of the
building is not sufficient to hold it down.

By Yonas Assefa 10
 STRUCTURE?

By Yonas Assefa 11
Earthquake load

• Significant horizontal loads can be imposed on a structure during an earthquake. Buildings

in areas of seismic activity need to be carefully analyzed and designed to ensure they do
not fail if an earthquake should occur.

Thermal loads

• All materials expand or contract with temperature change and this can exert
significant loads on a structure. Expansion joints can be provided at points on long sections
of structures such as wallsand floors so that elements of the structure are physically
separated and can expand without causing structural damage.

Settlement loads

• Stresses can occur in buildings if one part settles more than another. A
flexible structure will be able to accommodate the small stresses, whereas a
stiff structure will need careful design to alleviate the more severe stresses that may be
exerted.

12
 STRESS AND
STRAIN

Yonas A. 13
 STRESS AND STRAIN
Stress represents the action of a force or moment on a structural
member. If the force pulls the member (tension) it results in a
tensile stress; if the force pushes the member (compression) it
results in compressive stress. Tensile stresses stretch a member and
compressive stresses squeeze a member.

There is a significant difference between the behavior of a

structural member in tension and compression. Depending on how
slender the structural member is, it may buckle or crush under
compression stresses. However, buckling does not occur when a
structural member is subjected to tensile stresses.

By Yonas Assefa 14
 STRESS AND STRAIN
In mechanics of solids, the knowledge of difference
between stress and strain is very important. When an external
force is applied on a body, it starts to deform. the external force
applied on the body induces a resisting force within the body, when
this resisting force is taken on unit area is called stress.

There is a change in the dimension of the body due to the induced

stress. The ratio of this change in dimension with the original
dimension of the body is called strain

By Yonas Assefa 15
 STRESS AND STRAIN
• The various comparison between stress and strain are as
follows:

• Stress is the resisting force per unit area where as strain is the
deformation per unit area.

• The stress is given by the ratio of resisting force to the cross

section area of the body. The strain is given by the ratio of
change in dimension to the original dimension.

• The stress is denoted by the symbol ‘σ’ and strain by ‘e’.

16
 STRESS AND STRAIN
• The unit of stress is N/m2 or N/mm2 whereas the strain does
not have units.

• The stress can exist without strain but the existence of strain
without stress in not possible.

• This is all about the difference between stress and strain in

strength of materials.

17
 STRESS AND STRAIN
• The slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region is

defined as the elastic modulus, E. Structures should be

designed so that any applied load would not cause the stress in
the structure to be greater than sy.

• Beams are structural elements that are subjected to bending

forces. When bending occurs, the beam is subjected to tension
and compression simultaneously.

18
 STRESS AND STRAIN
• A material’s tensile strength is determined in the laboratory by pulling on a
specimen until it breaks. While the test is conducted, both the stress and
strain are recorded.

• The maximum stress that the specimen can withstand is called the
ultimate strength of that particular material. From a design stand-point,
we are mainly interested in the stress where the material stops behaving
elastically.

• A material behaves elastically when it returns to its original shape when an

applied load is no longer applied. This point is found by plotting stress
versus strain during the test and determining the stress at which the plot
becomes non-linear. This stress is called the yield stress, s y.

19
STRESS AND STRAIN

20
 About To Continue with
Structural Members and
Structural System

Yonas A. 21
THANK YOU
Yo n a s A s s e f a

22