LOADS ON BUILDINGS

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DESIGN PROCESS
Design is the determination of the
general shape and all specific
dimensions of a particular structure
so that it will perform the function
for which it was created.
So , good design must be safe and
economic.

Member
Loads
Dimension

Design
Process

Reinforcement
Strength Ratio

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SCOPE OF THE LECTURE

• Types of loads.

• Static and dynamic loads.

• Dead and live loads.

• Blast loads.

• Seismic loads.

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TYPES OF LOADS
Loads are classified as static and dynamic . Static loads are independent from
time but dynamic loads are function of time.

Dead and live

loads are types of
static loads.
Dead loads are
those have
unchangeable
locations in
structure and their
values are certain
and constant .

Live loads are those

movable and their
values are uncertain.

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Dead loads are calculated easily using structure dimensions and material density .
Live loads are movable and their values are uncertain , so they can not be
calculated directly and local or international specifications shall be consulted.
International Building Code IBC 2009 published live load values dependent on
types of building occupancy.

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Dynamic loads
The other group of loads is the dynamic loads , and the following are types of such
loads:

Wind load Blast load

Impact load Seismic load Flood load

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Different types of failure are found in the same earthquake , because of different modes
of movement.

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 Q1
• Task 1 Describe the different types of load on the warehouse, include typical
examples of
•  
• Dead Loads
• Live Loads
• Wind Loads
• Point loads
• UDL (Uniformly distributed load)
Also, describe the following types of forces exerted on the warehouse
• Concurrent
• Non-concurrent
• Coplanar

• When structures are subjected to load they experience different types of structural
stress. Sketch and describe each type of structural stress in terms of: 
– Compressive
– Tensile
– Shear
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_ Bending
 How forces act on simple structures
• This part of a structure has a compressive force acting
upon it. Newton’s laws state that there must be an equal
and opposite reaction and so the strut pushes against the
compressive force.
• The figure illustrates the strut working in position on a
canopy roof. The weight of the roof is pushing down the
strut which has to resist this and pass it on to the wall.

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• Ties carry tensile forces and are stretched
under this force by a pulling action. Figure 4.4
illustrates a TV mast which has wire ties to
anchor it against the pulling force of the wind
from each direction.

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 Dead Loads
• These are loads that have no live application.
• The majority of dead loads are those that
remain static or stationary.
• They do not change during the normal operation
of the building.
• The dead weight of the structure is a dead load,
or the self-weight of a beam; it is neither added
to nor taken away during the life of the building.

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 Imposed Loads / Live Loads
• These are the live loadings which are sometimes called
dynamic loads as they are added to and taken away with the
use of the building.
• People are a good example of this. If you fill a theatre, you
increase the live loading on the floors.
• Live loads are difficult to consider in structural design as
factors of safety have to be considered with their level of
force.
• Water storage tanks again vary with the weight of water
within them; similarly, full filing cabinets exert a point load
on the floor structure.
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 Point Loads
• These are a load that acts at a particular point.
• A simple beam upon which point loads act on the top of
the beam; for example, these could be items of heavy
machinery, water tanks or aerial masts on a roof.
• Equal to these point loads are the end reactions on the
beam that must push upwards with equal force to place
the beam into equilibrium.
• Equilibrium This is where all the forces are balanced.
• For example, forces up equals forces down and forces
clockwise equals forces anticlockwise.
• A structure will then not move or fall down.

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Equilibrium

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 Uniformly Distributed
• These are forces that are considered in design terms
to be evenly placed along a structure such as a beam.
• They can be considered as the live loads of a building
such as people, furniture and the self-weight of the
structure.
• It is far easier to design on this basis as people and
furniture move around a building.
• Figure 4.10 illustrates how this force is represented.

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UDL

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Rainfall a live load

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 Wind Loads
• These are loads exerted from the wind and can be classified as a
live load.
• Similarly, snow and rain need to be considered under this category
as they too exert a live load on a structure.
• Wind loads vary with the location and exposure of the structure
within the UK.
• The western side of the UK tends to receive prevailing wind loads.
• The leeside of a hill will also have less wind loading than the
prevailing side.
• With structural design, buildings have to be anchored against the
uplift created by the force of the wind and made stiff enough to
resist distortion from wind pressure against one face.

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Wind Loads

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Snow Loads

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 Forces
• Force may be defined as: ‘That measurable and determinable
influence tending to cause motion of a body’ .
• Sir Isaac Newton defined force as: ‘The product of the mass
of the body and the change of rate of velocity caused by the
application of the force.’
• As Newton discovered, all objects on the earth are held down
with the force of gravity.
• At sea level, this gravitational acceleration can be measured
at 9.81 metres per second (m/s²).
• So all objects are weighted down with this force which has a
measurable size of 9.81 times its weight.

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 Co-planar forces
• These types of forces exert their force in one
plane, that is, they act in an invisible layer as
indicated in Figure 4.6 next slide, where the
forces upwards act in the same plane as the
force downwards.

• They can be concurrent or non concurrent.

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Concurrent Forces
Concurrent is a collection of two or
more forces that join at a common
point of intersection. They can
either pull away from a common
point or point towards it, as the
Figure 4.7 illustrates. Each arrow
represents a force.

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Non Con current forces

Non-concurrent is simply a mixture

of forces that are in no format or do
not intersect at a common point, as
shown in Figure 4.8.

They consist of a number of forces

or vectors whose magnitude would
involve great effort to try to
calculate in structural design.

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 Forces
• Compression is formed when a vertical force, for example, pushes
down on a cube.
• The fibres within the cube have to push back with an equal force to
resist being crushed and deforming under the load – see Figure
4.11.
• Compression and tension are often found within the same
structure, such as a beam.
• The fibres within the material in Figure 4.12 are being torn apart
under the tension force shown by the arrows and have to resist this
to avoid being torn apart .
• A force that causes bending is known as a bending moment.
• In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, anti-clockwise
moments must equal clockwise moments.

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Compression

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With shear force, the two forces are pulling apart the
two pieces which are held together by welding or
bolted connection. The bolts or welds are being put
under shear stress and will break across their width,
shearing off at that point between the two pieces of
structure –
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 Bending Moment
• Figure 4.13 illustrates a bending moment.
• If you tied a piece of string, the length of which would be L, to the force
and point A and then applied the force, it would rotate clockwise about
point A.
• To counter this, the wall has to restrain the end of the beam with a
downward reaction force at A equal to force F in an anti-clockwise
direction. Bending moment = Force x Distance acting

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 Factor of safety
• All new buildings in the UK are subject to the
Building regulations and there should be a
factor of safety for the foundation,
• Meaning….it should have been over designed
and if that FOS was 2 then the foundation will
be capable of supporting 60KN/mm2 .
• 1 Newton = 1Kg x 9.81

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This wouldn’t happen?

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Task 3 - before we can do this we must look a the basics

A timber beam 1500mm long x 150mm wide x 150mm deep has a load of 40 KN applied to it and compressed by 0.020 mm. Calculate the Young’s Modulus (elasticity) of the beam.

Formula for Elasticity (E) = Direct Stress kN/mm²

Direct Strain

Stress = Force kN/mm² Strain = Extension or reduction in length

Area Original Length

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 Stress
• The intensity of stress is defined by the
following formula:
• Stress = Force
Area

• The units used to describe stress are:

• N/m²; kN/m²; N/ mm²; kN/ mm²
• Where N = Newtons; kN = kiloNewtons.
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 Calculations
• A steel tie with a cross-section measuring 25
mm by 25 mm is subjected to an axial pull of
100 kN. Calculate the normal tensile stress.
• Stress = Force
Area
100 kN = 0.16 kN/mm 2
25 mm x 25 mm

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 Calculate
• A concrete cube, of sides 200 mm is tested in
compression; the failing load was 650 kN.
Calculate the normal compressive stress at failure.

• Stress = Force
Area
650 kN = 0.02 kN/mm 2
200mmx200mm

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 Strain
• When an item of a structure is loaded by a
force and is placed under some measure of
stress, some changes in its properties are
bound to take place. This change may be
dimensional in its length or section or shape.
An object placed under such changes is said to
be in a state of ‘strain’. Fig 4.15 below

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 Strain
• The effect of load (force provided by loading the
member) is therefore to develop in the fibres of the
member both stress and strain simultaneously.
• The conventional way of expressing strain is to relate
the changes in a particular dimension to the original
value for that dimension.
• There are three types of different strain: Tensile strain –
the material is being stretched, as Figure 4.15 illustrates.
• A force is pulling from both ends of the bar which is
stretching the bar by an amount indicated by the dotted
lines.

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 Strain
• Compressive strain – this is where the object has a force which is compressing
or crushing the member and a reduction in length occurs as indicated by the
figure below where the force applied from the top has compressed the cube to
the dotted line.

• Shear strain – as you can see from Figure 4.17, the force from the left has pushed
the anchored cube to the right causing shearing strain as it distorts out of shape.

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 Strain calculation
• A steel bar 1.25 m long was subjected to a tensile force of 150
kN and extended by 1.5 mm. Calculate the strain which took
place.

Strain = extension
original length

1. 5 mm , Strain = 0.0012
1250 mm

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 Strain
• A 100 mm cube of timber was test loaded so that the
compressive strain was 0.0014. Calculate the
reduction in length that took place.

0.0014 = Reduction in length

100mm
Therefore reduction in length= 0.0014 x 100 = 0.14 mm

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 Next
• Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

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