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Civil Engineering Construction

CRN: 31888
Credit Rating: 20 Credits
Level 4, Semester 1 & 2

Juliana Byzyka BEng (Hons) MSc AFHEA MIET

Room 101, Newton Building
Email: j.byzyka@salford.ac.uk

Programmes:
B.Eng (Hons) / M.Eng (Hons) Civil Engineering
B.Eng (Hons) / M.Eng (Hons) Civil & Architectural Engineering
B.Sc (Hons) Civil Engineering
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Construction:
Techniques & technologies
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Last lecture…
• Temporary support
• Permanent support
• Construction sequence
• Superstructure
• Substructure
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What is infrastructure?
Infrastructure refers to the fundamental
facilities and systems serving a country,
city, or area, including the services and
facilities necessary for its economy to
function.
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Construction materials
In pairs, identify 10 different construction
materials…
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Construction materials
Concrete, steel, masonry, timber, carbon
fibre materials, earth, composite, stone,
asphalt, plastics, glass, metals, cardboard…
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Construction materials
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Design codes and standards

EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural design
EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures
EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake
resistance
EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of Aluminium Structures
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Design codes and standards

EN 13108 Bituminous mixtures. Material specifications (mixtures
addressed are: asphalt concrete (AC); AC for very thin layers;
soft asphalt; hot rolled asphalt; stone mastic asphalt; mastic
asphalt; porous asphalt; reclaimed asphalt).
EN 12697 Bituminous mixtures – Test methods for hot asphalt
PD 6691 Guidance on the use of BS EN 13108 Bituminous
mixtures. Material specifications.
BS 594987 Asphalt for roads and other paved areas -
specification for transport, laying and compaction and design
protocols
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) – Standards for
highways in the UK (it provides standards, notes and other
information for the design, assessment and operation of roads in
the UK).
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Steel
• What is steel?
In its simplest form is an alloy. By adding metals (e.g. nickel,
chromium and tungsten to iron) the mechanical and chemically
resistant properties can be changed creating variations such as
stainless steel.
• Structural steel is extremely strong, stiff, tough, and ductile; making it
one of the leading materials used in commercial and industrial
building construction.
• Two most commonly used grades in UK are:
S275 (minimum force required to create a permanent deformation in the
steel (yield strength) 275 N/mm2; used in buildings…..)
S355 (minimum yield strength 355 N/mm2 ; used in bridge components, oil and gas
structures, power plants….)
• Common forms of steel are:
Hot rolled (such as S275 steel)
Fabricated (manufactured steel sections to form a frame when assembled)
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Steel

Hot rolled steel Fabricated steel

Rolling of steel at very high temperatures Basic sections of manufactured steel
(typically over 930 oC). Then it is run are produced into predefined shapes
through a series of compression rollers to that are ready to erect and install
achieve the required dimensions and
cooled down before use
When the steel cools off, it will shrink non-
uniformly, which gives slightly less control
on the overall size and shape of a finished
hot-rolled product.
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Stress-strain behavior
• Initially the steel has a linear
stress–strain curve whose
slope is the Young’s modulus of
Elastic Plastic elasticity E
range range
• Young’s modulus is a measure
of the ability of a material to
withstand changes in length
when under tension or
compression
• The steel remains elastic while
in this linear range. If we
removed the load into the
tested specimen in the elastic
region then any deformation
Idealised stress-strain curve of steel accrued is not permanent.
Which means that the material
(mm) will return to its original shape.
However, if we remove the load
in the plastic region then the
(N/mm2) material permanently deformed.
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Stress-strain behavior
• Yield strength is the minimum
stress a material can withstand
while in tension or compression
Elastic Plastic
and is the limit of the linear
range range range of steel
• Beyond the yield strength, steel
will behave plastically. The
correlation between stress-
strain is no longer linear. The
plastic range is usually
considerable, and accounts for
the ductility of the steel. The
stress increases above the
yield stress until the ultimate
strength is reached.
Idealised stress-strain curve of steel
• Ultimate strength is the
maximum stress a material can
(N/mm2)
withstand while in tension or
compression
(N/mm2) • After this, the load capacity
decreases until tensile fracture
takes place.
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Stress-strain behavior
Dog-bone specimen
Tensile force applied causing
shoulders elongation. As the force increases,
the elastic deformation will pass in
the plastic region and fracture will
occur.
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Stress-strain behavior
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Stress-strain behavior of
materials without yield
strength – brittle materials
• Compared to a ductile material (e.g.
steel), brittle materials (e.g. concrete)
have smaller plastic region and they
cannot elongate as the ductile material
Elastic Plastic • A brittle material breaks suddenly and
range range
there is no necking
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Stress-strain behavior
18 Single-storey
Rigid structures (single
connections framed; hot-rolled
beams and columns)

Rigid Multi-storey
connections structures (office
of straight or buildings, hotels etc.)
tapered
Steel structures1

columns
and beams

Space structures
(rigid & lightweight
structures supported
by interconnected
struts which are rods
or bars that resists
compression)

Tension structures
and cable-supported
roof structures;
stressed skin
structures (=loads
are supported by the
structure exterior)
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Floor construction types

1. Concrete slabs on open-web steel
joists • The joists are small parallel
chord trusses
• Steel forms or decks are
usually attached to the
joists by welding or drilling;
then concrete slabs are
poured on top
• Open web joists are well
suited to building floors with
relatively light loads and
low vibration (e.g
apartment’s houses, office
buildings etc.)
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Floor construction types

2. One-way and two-way reinforced-concrete
slabs supported on steel beams
• One way slab is a slab which is supported
by beams on the two opposite sides to
carry the load along one direction

• It is called one way slab because the slab

will bend in one direction, along its shorter
span. In one way slab, the ratio of longer
span (l) to shorter span (b) is equal or
greater than 2
One-way slab
• Main reinforcement (those which take the
bending moment) is provided in shorter
span and distribution reinforcement in
longer span (used to maintain the spacing
of main bar)
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Floor construction types

3. One-way and two-way reinforced-concrete
slabs supported on steel beams
• Two way slab is a slab supported by
beams on all the four sides and the
loads are carried by the supports
along both directions. In two way slab,
the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter
span (b) is less than 2.
Two-way slab
• In two way slabs, load will be carried
in both the directions. So, main
reinforcement is provided in both
direction for two way slabs.
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Floor construction types

4. Composite floors/Steel floor decking
• Composite floors have steel beams
bonded together with concrete slabs.

• The two elements react as a unit in

resisting the total loads that the beam
sections would otherwise have to resist
alone

• Composite floors have the advantage of

combining high compressive strength
ability of concrete and high tensile
strength of steel. So less steel can be
used for the structure and lower total floor
thickness
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Floor construction types

• Steel floor decking can be used in

apartment buildings, offices…

• The strength of the decking allows

the use of a lightweight concrete

• The steel usually is galvanised and

if exposed underneath, it can be
left like that, painted or if
necessary fire resistant material
can be applied
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Floor construction types

5. Flat slab floors
• A flat slab floor is reinforced in two or
more directions with shear load of the
slab being concentrated on the concrete
columns and the square drop panels

• A flat slab transfers the loads to the

supporting concrete columns without the
use of beams

• Flat slabs are very effective for irregular

column layout, curved floor shapes etc.
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Floor construction types

6. Precast concrete floors
• Precast concrete floor used with
structural steel frame
• Precast concrete floor offers speed of
erection; more secure working
platform (propping is not required); in-
site concrete placing is significantly
reduced; laborious setting out and
shuttering is also reduced due to the
preformed holes
• Lightweight aggregates are often used
making the slabs light and easy to
handle
• The slabs are made by pouring
standard concrete into a mold while
under controlled conditions.
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Steel
How are steel buildings constructed?1

Design & drawings

Fabrication
Transport & erection

Al Nageim, H. (2016) Steel structures: practical design studies. Boca Raton:

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CRC Press.
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Design & drawings

Conceptual design
Finding the most appropriate structural
form & materials for the structure by
estimating cost; comparing different
proposals; deciding routes for
computer structural analysis of
sections; identifying critical loads;
checking of initial design

Detailed design
Final structural design is determined;
precise estimation of loading is done;
design of foundations, structural frames
elements and connections; definition of
final structure arrangement; production of
detailed drawings
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Fabrication
Steel sections are prepared by
the fabricator according to the
lists of materials and drawings

Drilling, shaping, cutting,

welding of assemblies & mark
number of steel members is
done
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Transport & erection

Careful planning of transportation
is important especially if large
members are to be transported

The erection can be done with

cranes such as mobile cranes for
single-storey buildings or tower
cranes for multi-storey buildings
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Construction sequence of
Eiffel tower
For tall buildings, the
steel work can be
delivered in lots (or else
batches). Each batch is
carefully planned so that
it maintains stability for
itself whilst the rest of
the frame is erected. The
construction is frequently
coordinated with the
access for cranage and
other site access
requirements.
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Construction sequence of
Eiffel tower
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Construction sequence of
Wembley Stadium
• Demolition of old Wembley stadium
• Issuing of final design for construction
• Laying of concrete foundation
• Erection of steel arch
• Work on the enclosure and stadium facade
• Installation of lights, concession areas, restrooms, locker
rooms and more
• Construction of parking lots and other infrastructure
improvements
• Pitch laying
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Construction sequence of
Wembley Stadium
• The foundations were formed by 4,000 separate piles with
the deepest being 35 m. 90,000 m3 of concrete and
23,000 tonnes of steel were used in the construction
• The steel arch weighs 1,750 tonnes.
It has a diameter 7.4 m and a 315 m
span. It is currently the largest single
roof structure in the world and
supports the majority of the stadium
roof. The sliding roof can remain
open during sunny days and cover
the pitch during rainy days
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Construction sequence of
Wembley Stadium
• The arch was fabricated on site and then it was lifted up
into its final position
• The arch is inclined from the vertical and is held in place
by cables tied to the man stadium structure.
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Construction sequence of
Wembley Stadium
• The arch was lifted using 5 turning masts
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Construction sequence of
Wembley Stadium
• Generally the erection of steel structures is a complicated and
process and the key aspects of assessing any erection
scheme are:
1. The sequence of manufacturing the steel sections which
includes design of steel structure; delivery of steel on site;
fabrication of steel; storage of steel sections until assembly
and erection
2. Working area for assembling the steel pieces and managing
cranes to reach them for erection
3. Assembly & lifting up of the assembled pieces of steel should
be carefully planned since craneage is expensive and
capacity is limited by both tonnage and reach.
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Construction sequence of
Wembley Stadium
4. Temporary support may be needed to stabilise the steel
members when long structural members are erected. This
happens because all structures are subject to temporary
forces during construction
5. Safe access to workers at different areas of the site to
maintain also the flow of the construction
6. Alignment and tolerances should be carefully planned
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Failures in steel structures

• Structures are designed to resist a variety of forces:
1. Dead loads (steel frame own weight & other permanent load
such as walls, floors, roof, plumbing and fixtures)
2. Live loads (i.e. people moving inside the structure, equipment
operating inside the structure, etc…)
3. Environmental forces such as wind, earthquake, snow and
rain

• A few limitations of steel include sensitivity to corrosion,

reduction in strength when exposed to high temperatures,
susceptibility to fatigue when loaded cyclically (repeated
loading) and susceptibility to buckling when under high
compression and flexural stresses
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Failures in steel structures

• Shear failures
Occur in connections…A failure can occur if the structural engineer
underestimates the design force the connection is to withstand.
Common connections in steel structures may be made with bolts or
welds or a combination of both.

• Flexural failures
Flexural failures occur in flexural members and steel beams, and, in
some cases, compression members such as columns that are subjected
to bending stresses.
Flexural members typically fail when flexural loadings cause the element
to buckle.
Providing lateral restraint to a member helps ensure it will not buckle.
However, a member may still fail should the stresses resulting from a
flexural loading condition exceed the material strength of the member.
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Failures in steel structures

• Compression failures
Occur in compression members, such as columns and braces, when the
compressive axial force applied to the element caused the element to
either buckle or become overstressed.
Similar to beams, column and brace members subjected to high
compressive stresses may experience buckling.

• Tensile failures
Tensile failures generally occur in brace members. This type of failure
occurs when the steel member is stretched to a level that exceeds the
material strength of the member. This occurs in stages, the first being
yielding, necking and then the material fails at the point with the least
cross section area.
Steel is a very strong material and very reliable in structural construction
of buildings. However, poor design can lead to the above-mentioned
failures of steel structures.
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Next time…..

Concrete