MATERIALS FOR FARM

STRUCTURE

Mrs Siti Kamariah Binti Md Sa’at

sitikamariah@unimap.edu.my; HP: 019-5706232
 Topics Outcomes
• At the end of topics, student should have
1. Ability to select the suitable materials for the structural elements (C6)
2. Ability to determine the engineering properties of materials (C4)
 Introduction
• A wide range of building materials is available for the construction of rural
buildings and structures.
• The proper selection of materials to be used in a particular building or structure
can influence
o the original cost,
o maintenance,
o ease of cleaning,
o durability and,
o appearance.
 Factors to selection
• Several factors need to be considered when choosing the materials for a
construction job, including:

1. Type and function of the building or structure and the specific characteristics
required of the materials used, i.e. great strength, water resistance, wear
resistance, attractive appearance, etc.

2. Economic aspects of the building/structure in terms of original investment

and annual cost of maintenance.

3. Availability of materials in the area.

 Factors to selection
4. Availability of the skilled labor required to install some types of material.

5. Quality and durability of different types of material.

6. Transportation costs.

7. Selection of materials with compatible properties, dimensions and means of installation.

8. Cultural acceptability or personal preference.

9. Sustainability and Environmental

 Stress-Strain Properties
T T

• Stress, σ = proportional to the force causing

the deformation = Force per unit area (F/A) DL
• Stress types –tension/ compression/ shear
• Strain, ε = a measure of how much the
material deforms when subject to a stress =
deformation = ∆L/Lo Lo
Section X
• Strain is dimensionless

T
T
 Stress – Strain Behavior of Elastic Materials

Stress

E = Modulus of Elasticity = Stress / Strain

Strain
Hooke’s Law- for relatively small deformations of an object,
the displacement or size of the deformation is directly
proportional to the deforming force or load
 Stress-Strain Curves
St re s s ,  Ultimate
Elastic tension
limit strength Fracture
point
Linear
limit
C
B D
A

St ra in, 
 Types of Stress-Strain Behavior
Stress Stress

Strain Strain
(a) Linear Elastic (b) Non-linear Elastic
Stress Stress

Plastic strain Strain Plastic strain Strain

(c) Elastic-plastic (d) Non-linear Plastic

Engineering properties of Materials

Wood/Timber
Steel

Concrete 
Others
Wood/Timber
 
 Wood
• Wood is a commonly used construction material in many parts of the world because
of its reasonable cost, ease of working, attractive appearance and adequate life if
protected from moisture and insects.
• However, forests are a valuable natural resource that must be conserved, particularly
in areas with marginal rainfall.
• As good a material as wood may be, there are regions where other materials should
be considered first, simply on a conservation basis.
 Wood Engineering Properties
• Strength in wood
o its ability to resist breaking when it is used in beams and columns.
o Not only is strength related to the species, but also to moisture content (MC)
and defects.
o Strength also related to density.

• Hardness
o the resistance to denting and wear.
o Hardwoods are more difficult to work, they are required for tools, tool handles,
flooring and other applications subject to wear, or where a high polish is
desired.
 Wood Engineering Properties
• Stiffness
o Resist deflection or bending when loaded.
o Stiff woods are not necessarily very strong. They may resist bending up to a point and
then break suddenly.
o Tough woods will deflect considerably before breaking. Even after fracturing, the fibers
tend to hang together and resist separation. Tough woods are resistant to shock loading.

• Warping
o the twisting, bending or bowing distortions shown by some woods.
o The method of sawing and curing affects the amount of warping, but some species are
much more prone to warping than others.
 Wood Engineering Properties
• Nail-holding resistance
o hardwoods is greater than for softer woods.
o Woods that are so hard that they tend to split when nailed, lose much of their holding ability. Pre-boring to 75 percent
of the nail size avoids splitting.

• The workability
o such as sawing, shaping and nailing, is better for soft, low-density woods than for hardwoods, but usually they cannot
be given a high polish.

• Natural-decay resistance
o the heartwood (the darker centre area of the tree) is more resistant than the sapwood (the lighter outer area of the tree)

• Paint-holding ability
o differs between woods types
o should be considered when selecting materials.
 Wood Engineering Properties
• Wood obeys Hooke’s Law when loaded in tension or compression.
 Poles and Timber
• In farm buildings and rural structures, wood is often used in the form in which it
has grown, i.e. round poles.
• In some areas wooden poles can be obtained at very low cost. These poles have
many uses in small building construction, such as columns for the load bearing
structure, rafters, trusses and purlins.
• Sticks and thin poles are often used as wall material or as a framework of the
wall.
• Where straight poles are selected for construction, it is as easy to work with
round timber as with sawn timber.
• Round timber can generally be considered stronger than sawn timber of the same
section area because the fibres in round timber are intact.
 Timber Classification
• Based on densities, Malaysian timbers are generally classified into four categories,
namely,
o Heavy hardwoods (800–1120 kg/m 3),
o Medium hardwoods (720-880 kg/m 3),
o Light hardwoods (400–720 kg/m 3) and
o Softwoods

• About 100 timber species with densities ranging from 350 kg/m3 to 1100 kg/m3
(measured at 19% moisture content) have been included in the MS 544: Part 2: 2001:
Code of Practice for Structural Use of Timber.

• Elastic Modulus, E = 4600 – 18000 N/mm2

• Poisson’s Ratio v = 0.3
 Moisture content

o m =mass before drying

1
o m =mass after drying
2
o Unit in %

• The strength of timber is based on its moisture content.

• In MS 544, the moisture content – 19%
o >19% - moisture
o <19% - dry
Defects by nature
 Defects in timber
• In addition to the defects indicated in Figure 7.2 there are a
number of naturally occurring defects in timber. The most
common and familiar of such defects is a knot
Typical sawing pattern
 Strength Group
• For design purposes the species are divided into seven strength groups, SG 1 to
SG 7, in the order of decreasing strength.
• SG 7 is considered weak and is generally unsuitable for many structural
applications.
Wet and dry grade stresses for various strength groups
of Malaysian timber (stresses and moduli expressed in
N/mm2)
Steel
 
 Steel Properties
• Strength is the ability of a material to resist stress. It is measured in
terms of the material’s yield strength fy and ultimate or tensile strength fu.
• Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist deformation. It is measured
in term of modulus of elasticity, E and Shear Modulus,G.
• Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy before failure. It
is measured as the area under the material’s stress–strain curve.
• Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo large in elastic (or
plastic) deformation before failure. It is measured in terms of percent
elongation or percent reduction in area.
 Steel Reinforcement Strength: fy
Nominal Values of Yield Strength for hot-rolled steel

Standard Nominal thickness of material

Grade
t ≤ 40 mm t ≥ 40 mm

fy (MPa) fu (MPa) fy (MPa) fu (MPa)

S235 235 360 215 360

S275 275 430 255 410

S355 355 510 335 470

 Steel Engineering Properties
• Modulus of elasticity
o E = 205 000 N/mm2

• Shear Modulus
E
G  80000 N / mm 2
2(1  v)
• Poisson’s ratio
o v = 0.3

• Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:

o α = 12 x 10-6/oC
 Structural Steel Shape
• Steel sections used for construction are available in a variety of shapes and sizes.
• In general, there are three procedures by which steel shapes can be formed: hot
rolled, cold formed, and welded.
• Commonly used steel shapes include
Behavior class of cross-section

Width to thickness ratio

Flange
c/t where c = (b-tw-2r)/2
Web c/t where c = h-2tf-2r
𝜀=
√ 235
𝑓𝑦
Table of properties of steel section
CONCRETE
 
 Concrete Properties
• Concrete is a building material made by mixing cement paste (portland cement and water)
with aggregate (sand and stone).
• Concrete is normally mixed at the building site and poured into formwork of the desired
shape, in the position that the unit will occupy in the finished structure.
• Units can also be precast, either at the building site or at a factory.
• Concrete is associated with high strength, hardness, durability, imperviousness and
mouldability.
• Concrete is not flammable and has good fire resistance, but there is a serious loss of strength
at high temperatures.
• Concrete is a relatively expensive building material for farm structures. Its only used as
slab/foundation materials.
• Poison ratio, vc = 0.2
• The compressive strength depends on the proportions of the ingredients, i.e. the
cement/water ratio and the cement aggregate ratio.
 Compressive strength, fcu
• Compressive strength, fcu is measured by crushing cubes measuring 15
cm on all sides.
• The cubes are cured for 28 days under standard temperature and
humidity conditions, before being crushed in a hydraulic press.
• Characteristic strength values at 28 days are those below which not more
than 5 percent of the test results fall.
• The grades used are C20, C25, C30, C40, C50 and C60, each
corresponding to a characteristic crushing strength of 20.0 N/mm2, 25.0
N/mm2, 30.0N/mm2, etc.
 Nominal mix =
Ratio of cement: sand: gravel
Stress-Strain curve for concrete
• A typical stress-strain curve for concrete.
• There is no clearly defined elastic range over
which the stress varies linearly with the
strain.
• Such stress/strain curves are typical of brittle
materials.
Modulus Elasticity, E

Es (Modulus
Elasticity of
steel
reinforcement)
= 200
kN/mm2
 Reinforced concrete (RC)
• Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension.
• Concrete subject to tension loading must be reinforced with steel bars or
mesh.
• The amount and type of reinforcement should be carefully calculated or,
alternatively, a standard design obtained from a reliable source should be
followed without deviating from the design.
• Concrete floors are sometimes reinforced with welded steel mesh to limit
the size of any cracking.
Reinforcement
Examples of Reinforced Concrete
BRC Wire Mesh Reinforcement at structural elements
Other Construction Materials

BAMBOO
MASONRY
ALUMINIUM
PLASTIC
STRAW
  EARTH
GLASS
 Towards Green Building

• To ensure sustainability
Compare the steel and rubber, which materials are
more elastic? Explain.
 Section Properties
 
Centre of gravity or Centroid
Moment of Inertia
Section Properties
-Revision from Statics/Strength of Materials-
 CENTRE OF
GRAVITY/CENTROID
• A point which the resultant attraction of the earth eg. the weight of the object.
• Centre of gravity of an area also called as centroid.

 ay
y
a
 ax
x
a
Example: Determine the cross-sectional area and the values of and to locate the
position of the centroid for the sections. Assume the origin of the coordinate system
to be at the bottom left-hand corner for each section.
 Second Moment of Area/ Moment of inertia, I

• Measures the efficiency of that shape its resistance to bending

• Moment of inertia about the x-x axis and y-y axis.

y
3
bd
d I xx  Unit :
x x 12
mm4 or cm4
db 3
I yy 
b y 12
 Principle of parallel axes
• Izz = Ixx + AH2 • Example:

• b=150mm;d=100mm;
H=50mm
x x • Ixx= (150 x 1003)/12
H
z z = 12.5 x 106 mm4
• Izz = Ixx + AH2
= 12.5 x 106 + 15000(502)
= 50 x 106 mm4
 Example 1:
• Calculate the moment of inertia of the following structural section

H=
12mm 212mm
400mm

24mm

200mm
 Solution
• Ixx of web = (12 x4003)/12= 64 x 106 mm4

• Ixx of flange = (200x243)/12= 0.23 x 106 mm4

• Ixx from principle axes xx = 0.23 x106 + AH2

AH2 = 200 x 24 x 2122 = 215.7 x 106 mm4

Ixx from x-x axis = 216 x 106 mm4

• Total Ixx = (64 + 2 x 216) x106 =496 x 106 mm4

 Elastic Section Modulus, Z
• Second moment of area divide by distance from axis
I xx
Z xx 
c
• Where c = distance from axis x-x to the top of bottom of Z.
• Unit in mm3
• Example for rectangle shape:
• Ixx = bd3/12, c = d/2, Zxx= Ixx/c = bd2/6
 Section Modulus, Z
• Z = 1/y
• f = M/Z = My/I
• Safe allowable bending moment, Mmax = f.Z
where
o f = bending stress
o y = distance from centroid
Bending Stress Distribution

• f=σ= bending stress = My/I

 Example 2
• A timber beam of rectangular cross section is 150mm wide and 300mm deep. The
maximum allowable bending in tension and compression must not exceed 6 N/mm2.
• What maximum bending moment in N.mm?

Ans:

• Z= bd2/6 = 150 x 3002/6 = 2.25 x 106 mm3

• Mmax= f.Z = 6 x 2.25x106 = 13.5x106 Nmm2

 Plastic Section

where:
Zxx = elastic section modulus
Sxx = plastic section modulus
σ = elastic stress
fy = design strength
 Shape Factors

Mp = fy x Sxx
Sxx = plastic section modulus
= 1st moment of area about the plastic neutral axis.

Example:
Mp = fy x Sxx
Mp = Fc x lever arm
Mp = stress x area x lever arm = fy x B x D/2 x D/2
2
 Example
• Determine the position of the plastic neutral axis plastic, the plastic section modulus
and the shape factor for the welded section indicated in Figure below
Solution
Example: Elastic and plastic moments of resistance of a
beam section
 Exercise
1. A marble column of cross sectional area 2.0 m2 support a mass of 25,000 kg. Calculate
stress and strain within a column. Given Young Modulus for marble 50 x 109 N/m2.
How much is the column shortened if it is 12 m high?
2. Determine the cross-sectional area and position of centroid for the section below.
Assume the origin of the coordinate system to be at the bottom left corner for each
section.
 Exercise
3. Determine the second moment of areas Ixx and Iyy in Problem 2.1 to 2.3.
4. Determine the section moduli Zxx and Zyy in Problem 2.1 to 2.3
• Determine the following values for the welded sections indicated in Problems 2.13 to
2.16. a) the position of the plastic neutral axis, b) plastic section modulus (Sxx) and c)
shape factor, v
 Attendance 31/10/2022
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 Attendance 3/11/2022
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 THANK YOU

‘The materials shape your idea – Eric Spiekermann’