INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
MEANING OF COMMUNITY
MEANING OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
PHILOSOPHIES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
IMPACT OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ON OTHER FIELDS
ASSUMPTIONS IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMMUNITY
PROCESS OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
COMMUNITY ORGANIZING STRATEGIES
CROSS CUTTING ISSUES IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS
ROLE OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
CHALLENGES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
IMPACT OF COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES IN COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
MODELS OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
MEANING OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT MODELS
NATURE OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT MODELS
IMPACT OF THE MODELS ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITIES
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT WORKER
MEANING OF COMMUNITY WORKER
ROLE OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT WORKER
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE OF COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT WORKER
IMPACT OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT WORKER ON
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT
MEANING OF EMPOWERMENT
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT
WAYS OF EMPOWERING COMMUNITY
FACTORS NECESSARY FOR COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT
IMPACT OF COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT ON COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
COLLABORATIONS, PARTNERSHIPS AND ORGANISATIONAL
NETWORKS
IMPETUS AND RATIONAL
STRATEGIES FOR BUILDING ORGANIZATIONAL COLLABORATIONS
TYPES OF COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
STRATEGIES USED IN BUILDING COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNITY
IMPACT OF COLLABORATIONS AND PARTNERSHIPS ON
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
SUSTAINABILITY OF COMMUNITY PROGRAMMES
MEANING OF SUSTAINABILITY
STRATEGIES USED TO SUSTAIN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
ROLE OF VARIOUS STAKEHOLDERS IN SUSTAINING COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABILITY OF COMMUNITY PROGRAMMES
CHALLENGES IN SUSTAINABILITY OF COMMUNITY PROGRAMMES
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
MEANING OF LOCAL AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
REASONS OF GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITIES
WAYS IN WHICH GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIE
EMERGING TRENDS IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
EMERGING TRENDS IN SOCIAL WORK
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TOPIC I: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Community
The term has been used by different people to mean different things;
however in nearly all the definition, the term exhibits the following
characteristics:
(i) Refers to a group of people who shares common cultural
traits e.g values, languages, norms, traditions e.t.c.
(ii) It’s a group of people with common interests, goals,
occupations/objectives.
(iii) It’s a group of people who have common kinship ties,
which is related on having a common descent.
N/B:
Community can therefore be defined as an association of people who
have come together to pursue a common interest or goal using
established methodologies.
It’s a group of people that share a common geographical territory and
are bound by kinship ties.
Development
It’s a multi-dimensional concept that generally refers to the process of
transformation leading to better of living, cultural, social and economic
changes and educational transformation and political reforms.
CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Community Development is community based approach clichéd at
achieving transformation and development by community members
themselves; organizing themselves into groups providing their own
resources and through their own participation and involvement in their
activities.
However, the practice of community development emerged and grew in
the British colonist and Africa refers to:-
 The community improvement activities in which people were
actively involved.
 These improvement activities were actively carried out on self-
aid basis. This is later became the community development
movement.
There are many definitions on community development as discussed
below:-
The first definition was provided by the:
(a) Cambridge Conference “encouragement of initiatives in
African Society.”
The Conference used the term mass education to imply community
development.
It further defined mass education as a movement designed to promote
better living for the whole community with their active participation and
if possible on the initiative of a community. They also argued that if this
initiative is not coming spontaneously (by itself), then some techniques
should be adopted or used for arousing or stimulating in order to serve
its active and enthusiastic response.
(b) U.N Definition
They defined community development as the “ process by which the
effort of people themselves are united with those of government
authorities in order to improve the economic, social and cultural
conditions of the communities and also to integrate these communities
into the life of nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national
progress.”
(c) International Co-operative Administration.
They define community development as a process of social action in
which people of a community organize themselves for planning and
action, defines their common and individual needs and problems;
execute these plans with maximum reliance upon the community
resources and supplement these resources when necessary with service
and materials from government and non-governmental agencies outside
the community.
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(d) Biddle and Biddle’s Definition.
He perceived community development as a social process in which
human beings can become complete to live with and gain some control
over local aspects of a frustrating and changing world. It’s a group
method of expanding personality growth, can occur when members or
neighbours work together to serve their growing concept for the good of
all.
(e) Clifford Definition 1966.
It’s a system at village level that helps people to work together for a
better living.
(f) Christenson and Robinson.
They concluded that community development due to its usefulness as a
profession means different things to people.
Many diverse efforts have been seen as falling under it. The various
definition of community development must contain the following:-
 It must involve actions taken by people to better or develop
themselves or their society.
 Involves a process; by which people’s efforts are united by
those of port authorities to improve the economic, social and
cultural conditions of the community.
 It’s an approach that encourages self help and mutual aid by
effective use of local resources.
 It’s a process of social action where people organize themselves
for planning action.
 It involves development of people’s capacity through awareness
creation i.e educating people to develop their own needs and
meet them.
 It also involve a process where man can become competent to
deal with and gain control over the local aspects of the
frustrating and changing world.
 Community development should be defined in reference to
planned and organized efforts that allow local people to acquire
attitude and skills necessary for democratic participation in
solving a community problem.
THEORITICAL CONCEPTION OF COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
Theoretically, community development can be defined as a process, a
programme, a method, an approach, a movement, a means and end as a
movement and as an education.
As a process:
It is seen as work done in stages that allows movement from one state
which is less desirable, to another which is more desirable, for example,
from a state where community members rely on the resources outside
community to that state of reliance on their own resources.
As a method:
It is seen as a means of accomplishing some objectives. It is seen as a
way of working towards an end that is desired by the development
agencies.
As a programme:
Community development is seen as a set of activities or task whose
implementation if properly carried out facilitates the attainment or
achievement of objectives or the programme.
As a movement:
It may be seen as activities carried out by the society and community
leaders working together with others (change agents and governmental
authorities) to bring about change or programs.
As means and end:
Community development involves ways of achieving a particular end
that constitutes “means” however, community development is an end
since its aimed at attaining a particular goal or an end. People can thus
conclude that community development refers to a mean and end.
As an approach:
Community development is carried out through a designed policy
framework that constitutes clear strategies on how to achieve a specific
goal. It thus constitutes an approach.
As education:
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It’s considered an education because the improvement or betterment. It
brings about area count through education of the members of the
community. By making, them aware of their local problems and
facilitating them to do something in order to improve their living
conditions.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
The origin of community development can be traced to a number of
sources in the U.S, Britain and India. Its origin in British colonial
territory in Africa; are not quite clear but can be traced to the effects of
universities and international institution.
The origin and growth of community development as a profession
specifically looks at (Utopian community meaning ideal) and this
reflects on:-
 Ideal community
 Social welfare
 Agricultural extension work in USA and Britain
 Rural reconstruction in India
 Community development work in British colonial territories in
Africa
 Contributions of Universities and International organization
towards its development
(e) Social welfare programs
2. Sandern 1970s
He discusses the growth of social welfare work and utopian community
as having influenced the emergence.
3. Pande 1969
Of India, traces the origin of community development to rural
reconstruction work; that was done in that country in the early part of
that century.
(a) Utopian (ideal) Community
These communities were based on religious or secular principles. There
was a society or one community known as “New Harmony” which was
brought by Robert Owen from another group of religious oriented man
utopian known as Roots Rappiters.
He tried to bull people who are industrious to join the community which
was then set together and these community ownership of goods was
done in accordance with rulers “that emphasized”:-
 The community was a non-religious and thus lectures moral
issues were given.
 This community later broke apart due to Owens’s inability to
spend much time with the people and also due to retardance of
some of its members who did not work as hard as it had been
expected but however Owens’s influence led to emergence of
similar community especially in Britain.

ROUTES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT (b) Social welfare work in USA

Community development as a profession appears to have originated Social work in USA and Britain emerged and grew, directed at
from different sources for example:- overcoming conditions such as overcrowding, inadequate housing and
1. Dunham in 1970s sanitation, illness, long working hours and the poor working conditions.
He listed 124 types of effort which included: These conditions were ceased by rapid industrialization, changes in
(a) Utopian communities techniques and migration of people to cities.
(b) Growth of Local Government
(c) Adult education movement In Britain, churches initially undertook social work however, during the
(d) Agricultural extension work 19th and 20th centuries, volunteers including students from universities,

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undertook to reform the living conditions of the poor especially in the
cities. Later on, charity organizations were formed especially in
England.
In USA, Smith (1979) noted that the community association movement
emerged between the two world wars to bring together representatives
of local branches of national volunteers, society, churches, political
parties, interested groups and the public at large in discussion of what
needed to be done to improve conditions of poorer areas.
Discussions were conducted in poorer areas in buildings known as
community areas.
In USA, social work begun as “relief society” which largely coordinated
the giving of aids to the poor. These were followed by charity
organization societies. Both societies sort to coordinate the work of a
large number of private agencies which were involved in providing for
the need of the poor and also provided relief and other services to the
poor.
In USA also, these societies sort reforms in official housing courts,
established agencies and programs for the case of dependant children
co-operated with the policies, programs of dealing with beggars which
were initiated through social service for gathering data.
(c) Agricultural Extension Work.
This work emerged and grew in the USA. It started with “Agricultural
Societies” in the year 1785 which sort to disseminate information to
farmers and was followed by short courses called farm institutes which
were organized for farmers in the 19 th c. There also emerged local
farmers’ alliance which sort to pass information on agriculture to
farmers.
These efforts were facilitated with the passage of Moril Land Grant act
of 1862 by the USA congress which required each US state to set up a
Land Grand College and establish an experimental research station.
These colleges were operated with financial and technical support
coming from the federal government.
Here extension was broadly seen to include instruction and technical
aspects of agriculture, home making, and sanitation as well as social and
moral subjects to people both in countryside and in town.
However in Britain, extension services originated around 1890 when an
act of parliament provided grants to country councils for instructions to
farmers. Country councils supplemented these grants and started
agricultural colleges that acted as centers for lectures and
demonstrations.
Farm institutes were also started as permanent community institutions
for training farm boys and girls. Farmers’ participation in planning and
implementation of extension work took place through various
agricultural committees at the county level and through local farm
organization.
Thus Britain extension work was demonstrated through county councils
but centred on agricultural colleges and institutes. It also provided room
for farmers’ participation in planning, implementation of agricultural
program.
(d) Rural reconstruction work in India.
Rural reconstruction work in India was pioneered by leading personality
in India which included:-
 Rabindranath Tagore
 Frank Lugard Brayne
 Spencer Hatch
 Mahatma Gandhi
All of the pioneers were deeply concerned with the poor conditions of
the then 700,000 Indian villagers and for instance, Mahatma Gandhi
held that the salvation of the villagers had to come from the villagers
themselves through their self help efforts.
Brayne on the hand held that the villager and not the government was
the central figure in the help of his/her village.
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The construction work in India entailed:- He however felt that ignorance was the main problem of the villagers.
Improvement in areas such as:- His main contribution to rural reconstruction in India was to achieve an
 Agriculture enhanced national output. He stated a number of associations that
 Health services helped in village development work; he also taught people how to
 Sanitation and Drainage cultivate well and how to improve their health.
 Roads He also managed to organize farmers into co-operative societies.
 Village crafts
Rabind Ranath Togore

He was mainly worried about the poor living conditions of people in
Frank Lugard Bryne
India. He restated the rural reconstruction work by assisting the
He argued that villagers and not the government were central of their
neighbours and family to improve the conditions.
village.
Later he established a training institute for rural work; he trained guides
He had been appointed in 1920 as the deputy commissioner Gartor
to help improve the living conditions in the rural areas.
District in Punjab state. He attributed part of their poverty to their bad
Due to his knowledge and skills in agriculture, having studied it US, he
habit that included:-
was able to educate farmers on better agricultural activities.
 Laziness
He also helped funding.
 Poor hygiene
 Health and Marriage feast
Spencer Hatch
 Costly litigation He actually emphasized the necessities of farm demonstrations to
He was further entrusted with the task of planning and implementing a improve agricultural practices at rural level.
skim that could help improve the living conditions of the people of the He encouraged this through extension activities.
area that was a top down skim where most activities were imposed and He also started a training institution to train guiders.
effected through the official pressure. Having learned sociology in the US, he was able to start the first Rural
Development Centre in India which was concerned with rural
N.B development.
Not all the pioneers used the top down technique to impose the idea on
the villagers’ contribution. In conclusion, these early efforts of betterment of community appear to
He also started two schools for rural reconstruction work. have occurred. Independent of each other; however in practice this
(1) School for rural economy. could not have been the case.
(2) School of domestic economy. This school trained women on It is possible that in both USA and Britain, the development in the
domestic activities e.g. cooking, hygiene, illiteracy. welfare field may have influenced those in agricultural extension and
Brayne used propaganda to make people aware of their problems and vice versa.This development may have in turn influenced rural
organized public speeches and went further to create a District Gazette. reconstruction work in India.

Mahatma Gandhi
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This earlier efforts at community betterment may also have influenced
the British effort, official and colonial colonies to start the community
development work.
TOPIC II: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
The practice of community development is based on a number of
assumptions and principles.
Assumption: These are believes in whose truths cannot be proved.
Principles: Are provable truths upon which we base our beliefs. They
can be seen as now being
rules.
ASSUMPTIONS OF THE PRACTICE OF COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
(1) Knowledge in both physical and social sciences passed to the
members of the society; a process of education helps to perfect the
society and to meet its needs. The use of both physical and social
science knowledge could facilitate the pace or speed of the process
more than the natural process of evolution.
(2)All members of a democratic need to have access to both social and
physical science knowledge to help them improve their lives.
The underlined idea here was that people have to take responsibility for
improving their living conditions.
(3) Community development work has to be entrusted to trained
professionals who know what needs to be done and have the skills for
doing it.
(4) Community development is both radical and conservative in nature.
Its radical outlook implies expanding democratic freedom. Its
conservative outlook implies working within the prevailing institutional
framework without threatening to change them.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
(a) Principle of Equilibrium of Poverty (Swarne Poel)
This principle was advanced by Swarne Poel and its advocates that the
gains made from the effort of the poor to free themselves from poverty
are quickly lost by their vulnerable conditions. The more the poor try to
create wealth for themselves and free themselves from poverty the more
they lose. The loss is generally a result of global social economic
conditions beyond their control and through natural calamities. These
factors generally makes it difficult for the poor to escape from this
vicious circle of poverty which is also known as Deprivation Trap.
This means poverty as phenomena should not be blamed on the victim
but on the force of exploitation from both the local and global society.
(b) Principle of Human Protection
The principle here is that any community development initiative should
eliminate poverty and suffering by meeting physical needs and not
neglecting abstract needs otherwise it will be defective. Deprived
people have concrete physical needs such as food, shelter, clothing e.t.c
and abstract needs (social and psychological needs) that have to be met.
Abstract needs may include feeling of self reliance, happiness, self
esteem, dignity e.t.c. These psychological needs are promoted when
people are recognized as being capable of making their own decision;
however the problem today is that more often than not most
development objectives happen to be physical and concrete.
Community development should therefore be carried out in such away
that abstract needs met in the process of obtaining (providing) physical
concrete needs. It must have an integrated approach as people’s needs
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cannot be compartmentalized. It encourages the community
involvement.
(c) Principle of Participation and Involvement
Community projects will continue to suffer poor sustainability as long
as professionals and change agents continue doing things for the people.
Many projects have failed soon after handing over especially due to low
or non-participation the community due to poor decision making.
Participation means different things to different people.
 According to Bhatnager and Williams “it’s a process by which
people……influence decisions that affect them…..and not
simple involvement in the implementation or benefits of a
development activity.”
 Others see it as an effort to involve a community in the
implementation of already drawn up plans.
 Others still see it as community mobilization which may mean
soliciting people’s local contribution in labour, materials e.t.c.
Today more and more actors in community development have realized
that improvements in people’s conditions are not brought from above
foreign agencies but by beneficiaries actively participating in the
process to bring about change.
(d) Principle of felt needs
In the heart of every project, there is a recognized need. The need for
change must be recognized by people. The people must accept that there
is a problem affecting them.
It’s only when people have a common problem that they can accept the
implementation of a program or project to eliminate it. People will only
participate in a project if they feel it focuses majorly on their felt needs.
(e) Principle of Empowerment
Empowerment is the capacity to manage one own life whether as an
individual or as a community.
Empowerment involves influencing and changing public policies that
may affect the freedom of choice towards becoming master f once upon
destiny; however the process must guide against compromising the
rights f other members of the community.
According to Chambers “It entails enabling the poor and the powerless
to take more control over their lives and secure better livelihood with
ownership and control of productive assets.”
Basically, sustainable projects are those that have invested over the
years in the development of people and organization by on skills,
capacity and self confidence to manage their activities.
Empowerment enables community to develop courage and confidence
to overcome oppression and injustice. This is because it is essentially a
political process that seeks to redistribute power in favour of the poor
and the discouraged.
(f) Principle of Ownership
This is the principle of the ability of the people to own the process and
the result of what they do.
It implies being responsible whether for the better or the worst. This
principle is based on the idea that people identify with projects and
maintain what they have toiled to build.
People must be given the opportunity and power to start their own
development, outsiders should only come in to give support.
Development through mobilization should involve the awakening and
activating of people to take up the responsibility of ownership and
manage their own future through their projects.
(g) Principle of Release (As opposed to relief)
The real goal of development is to eradicate poverty. It should help free
people from vicious circle of poverty. It should not temporarily release
or alleviate suffering temporarily but should be permanent.
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Relief initiatives only make people dependent on their benefactors
because their need for relief does not stop. Relief will only treat the
symptom of differ problem. We need an approach that release people
from disease, hunger, fear, powerless.
We need approaches that address the route cause of poverty.
(h) Principle of Learning
Today, it’s widely accepted that the community development circle is
born of learning attitude especially by dialogue by others. This is
because no individual knows everything Hope and Timmel (1984)
observed that on many issues the so called experts have been wrong
through advice, for instance have led to greater poverty.
There is a new awareness now that no experts have all the answers.
Chambers observe that power hinders learning. The so called experts,
who are often wrong, are those who have long education and training.
They are senior and have professional authority, control of funds, and
exposition in society. This view of power prevents them from learning.
The professional are usually in touch with their professional colleagues
through seminars, conferences. Their learning is more from above than
below the grassroots’ level, the more participation of the community in
a project in it bring about learning.
Community development workers who want to promote local learning
or genuine development should not bring in already packaged
procedures, guidelines or models of development to people.
When decision making is removed from people, the idea of collective
learning and discovery is defeated.
Community development worker should instead go to community with
nothing to offer to the people more than themselves and their
willingness to get free from the vicious circle of poverty.
(i) Principle of Adaptive ness (as opposed to blue print planning-
change in person’s mind)
Blue print is technical, clear and precise and comprehensive but rigid
and inflexible.
Here learning is the form of feasibility studies and profiles before
planning begins in such scenario, there is no learning to adapt.
There is no room for ordinary community to make decisions, yet those
professional planners those realities both psychologically and
physically.
This principle requires a change of mindset. It requires a willingness to
learn and plan with the people as you go through
It is built on experimentation as opposed to the straight jacket approach
bound by strict race. The blue print planning is also known as straight
jacket approach.
It is disjointed, short-term, trial and error kind of planning and
implementation.
It joins for each problem will be found within some culturally
acceptable arrangement and practices.
Adaptive processes are open to learning from innovations and
experiments from other social environment.
(j) Principle of Simplicity (As opposed to complexity)
It is the contrast, the idea that bigger is better. It is against complexity
and sophistication.
Simplicity however not popular especially from politicians, politically
initiated programmes to tackle especially poverty tend to be big,
extravagant and high flying project that attracts attention in complex
and sophisticated community development initiatives, here is limited
learning.
They tend to rely more heavily on external expertise and therefore result
in minimal use of local knowledge and skills. This curtails the enhance
of local people in sense of self reliance and dignity.
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The success of other principles of community development is largely
determined by this principle.
There can be hardly a genuine participation, empowerment, adaptive
ness, local ownership and in community development initiative that are
complex and sophisticated.
The principle does not advocate that we think small and limit ourselves
to small scale operations. It instead advocates that large project should
be broken down into small parts where the learning process can be
enhanced.
It also means that technical aspects should be adaptable to local
situations. This involves training the local people the capacity to
understand and control foreign technology.
The guiding principle here is that “the smaller and simpler project; the
easier it will be to get along lasting result.”
Swane Poel (1993) agrees that relatively large project involving large
group of people have to be broken into smaller manageable units to be
managed by smaller groups.
The larger the group the more difficult it will be for them to identify a
common need and objective.
(k) Principle of Means justifies the end
Today there is a lot of debate in development cycle to establish whether
or not its enough to settle down with the attainment of development
goals without necessary having to wrong how these goals were attained.
Some believe that good development will not have taken place where
targets are attained without minding the place where large / attaining
these goals. They contend that the process of development is more
important than the attaining to the development to the development
target
Project planned without community development denies the people a
precious learning effort and the capacity building project planned
without denying the people a precious learning effort and the capacity
building.
It also robs them from their sense of self dignity and self worth. Such
projects planned from above deny the community bonding that takes
place through collective project management. Project planned and
implemented for people by outsiders result in low self-esteem on the
part of the people.
It also leads to low sense of ownership and therefore the sustainability
of the project compromised. People will not take pride and
responsibility in maintaining projects improved to them.
PHILOSOPHY OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Philosophy comes from a Latin word meaning love of knowledge.
Knowledge is brought by willingness to learn.
The underlying philosophy of community development is not the typical
classroom education but the practical education aimed at solving
problems.
The change accomplished come from action when e.g. local villagers
are assisted by community workers to realize that they can do
something about the need they achieve psychological, social and
physical growth, practical and tangible e.g. school, water projects e.t.c.
ASSUMPTIONS BASED ON THE PRACTISE OF COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
 Knowledge is both physical and social science passed to
members of the society through the process of education helps
to perfect the members of the society to meet their needs.
 All members of a democratic society need to have access to all
physical and social science.
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  Community development work have to entrusted to train
professionals who know what to be done and who skills in
doing it.
 Community development is both radical and conservative in
outlook.
 Community development seeks to develop or strengthen local
organization, group and community leaders.
 Community mobilizes and uses its own monetary resources.
 Community entails the creation of awareness through
participation, it enables community to achieve psychological,
social and physical growth, and all this will enhance sustainable
transformation of development.
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
For any entity to be referred to as a community; it must have:-
 Geographical Location
 People as its members
 A culture
 Personal Traits
 A time of existence
1. Geographical Location
This is the area, territory or place where the community is located. The
area may be large or small. It is surrounded by boundaries which are
known by members of the community and its neighbours.
The communities normally have a locality name, the pattern of life.
Geographical location enables us know the pattern of life of a particular
people, which is influenced by environmental factors and resources
such as food, minerals, topography, soil e.t.c. which in turn influence
settlement pattern that permit survival within an area.
2. People
These are members of a community who are gradually replaced by
biological process of reproduction. Their number or population size is
normally known. It is also important to now their age, structure, sex
ratio e.t.c.
Such demographic factors influence the quality and quantity of social
intervention.
3. Culture
The culture of a community encompass of values, norms, traditions and
beliefs system.
The knowledge of this help to develop work, appreciate the behaviours
and conduct of that community.
Some communities are known to be less inclined to experiment, new
ideas whose concepts are not clear to them. Other communities may be
enlightened and more innovative than others.
4. Personal Traits
This should be seen broadly in terns of psychological attribute. Some
members of the community may be introvert (inwardly withdrawn)
while others extrovert (outwardly withdrawn).
5. Time
Time is one of the scarce resources in planned change activities. It
therefore needs to be utilized effectively.
It helps to show how long a community has been existing in a particular
place. This may have a bearing on people’s values and perception of
life.
The study of population of a time may provide guidelines in planning
for a community. It is also important to know the periodic occurrences
in a community like their festivals and ceremonies.
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TOPIC III: COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
It can be seen as a group of individuals in a given situation who
mutually agrees to work together for attainment or achievement of
given objective.
Organizations can be formal or informal.
Informal Organizations
They gather for meetings but do not have officials.
Such groups may be considered as action groups. They normally spring
up to carry out an activity and break up as soon as the job is done.
This may also refer to the relationship between people in an
organization based on personal attitude, emotions, prejudices, likes,
dislikes e.t.c.
Characteristics of Informal Organization
1. Informal relationship are unplanned, they arise spontaneously.
2. The formation is a natural process.
3. Reflects human relationship.
4. Are based on common taste, problem, religion, culture, beliefs,
values, norms e.t.c.
5. Membership is voluntary.
6. A person may be a member of several information groups at the same
time i.e. there can be overlapping.
Formal Organization
They have chosen officials, hold regular meetings, and deal with
specific problems in which their members have some interest, have
chosen to achieve.
Generally, therefore formal organizations can be defined as system
continuously co-ordinated activities of forces of two or more people.
Characteristics of Formal Organization
1. There is record-keeping in the meeting.
2. There are rules and regulations to guard it.
3. They have structures based on division of labour and specialization.
4. Their structures concentrate on the job to be done and not on the
individual who performs the job (impersonal).
5. The organization does not take into consideration the personal
sentiments or feelings of the organizations’ members.
6. They have authority and responsibility relationship.
7. Have a relatively long period of survival.
8. Sometimes have specific classes of members.
PROCESS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
This is the process whereby individuals in the community come
together with the aim of meeting common goal or solving a common
problem. The process of community organization has involved several
changes. These changes are seen in its methods e.g. from being
confined to social planning and staffing at the national level or through
national agencies to extensive grassroots’ organizations and
participation.
From being concerned with existing welfare service to more emphasis
of social development and service provision through the community.
Changes from being largely based on consensus to the acceptance of
conflicts; there can be increased activities involved in work without
even the loneliest stakeholders.
Challenges of Community Organization
1. Hijacking from above.
Strong top-down sponsorship of groups by external government
honours has tended to weaken allegiance of the leadership and staff.
2. Heterogeneous Membership which threatens Harmony.
In order to be effective, instrument of transformation, organization
should be formed of homogenous membership. The poor rural will
participate more effectively where membership is homogenous thus
avoiding the danger of domination by a few powerful elements in the
membership.
Common interest among homogenous bring them together.
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3. Non-democratic political environment.
This contradicts the process of empowerment and participation. The
absence of minimum democratic provision that would enable people to
freely associate as citizens of a society spells doom for the hope of
genuine organization.
4. Large projects are difficult to manage, this can compromise on
quality and unity of purpose.
Is a process that should be dealing with humble and small scale
initiatives by the people?
To accomplishing small scale initiatives, community can gain
experience the practical management of organization details; similarly,
for organization to be effective, they should be made up a small and
manageable size of membership.
The target group, the more difficult it will be for them to identify a
common need.
Similarly they further away, they live from each other, and the more
difficult it will be for to come together for collective action.
5. Lack of Resources (raw materials, lack of knowledge and skills).
6. Poor leadership.
TOPIC IV: MODELS OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
A Model.
Is anything with good qualities that one or others can imitate.
The model of community development is therefore those methods
employed by community development workers to bring about change to
community and others should emulate or try to emulate.
Community has certain strategies or methods which a community
development worker could employ to bring about planned action for
social change.
These are the planned process in which community (individuals/
groups) arrive at chosen objective.
Social Action Model.
Social action has been defined as all the efforts that involve two or more
members of the social system.
This action or effort can be negative or positive.
Koller defined it as “an undertaking of collective action to mitigate
(bring down) or resolve social problem.
Social action rest on the recognition that people can improve the society
through collective action.
Tropman and Elrich (1970) saw social action as taking place even in
situation where force is used: according to them social disobedient and
other disruptive military are also social actions.
Social action implies a disadvantaged segment of the population that
needs to be organized so as to make demands on the larger segment for
resources and treatment according to social justice and democracy.
Social action terms and making changes in communities by pressing for
redistribution of power, resources, decision making or general changes
in basic policies.
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In third world countries, where small ruling elites lawfully monopolize the discussions whether people want to improve themselves or are
decision making, civil disobedience and other forms of disruptive apathetic.
military may not be tolerated. The agent here familiarizes with local area, leadership potential,
resources, and needs.
The procedure through which social action can be brought about may The agent also identifies the local groups or organization and their
include the following models (types):- goals, act in ties, leaders e.t.c.
(a) Induced social model. The agent identifies groups and organizations that influence the
(b) Spontaneous social action model. community from outside such as governmental or non-governmental
(c) Quasi-stationary equilibrium. agencies.
(d) Social advocacy. He also gathers information about the physical environment and other
(e) Diffusion of Innovation. social-economic condition of the community. The agent gathers
information about local practices and the history of the community/
Induced social action model. including the development projects that have succeeded or failed in the
This is the model which is largely used by outside agent to effect community before.
change in communities. It was initially developed by Beard and Bohlen. The agent should try to understand the political, ethnic and religious
In this model, social action is seen as occurring in stages/ steps. These factors hat may lead to failure or success of development initiatives.
stages may include:- This stage may last from a few days to several months depending on the
 The exploratory / initiation stage. people’s attitude and the skills of the change agent.
 The organization stage.
 The discussion. (2) Organization stage.
 The group decision making stage. This is the stage where those members of the community who feel
 The planning action stage. concerned are invited to a meeting for further discussion on the
 The action stage. problems or needs of the community.
 Evaluation stage. They may then invite other members of the community, their friends
 Subsequent action stage. and relatives to subsequent meeting.
(1) Exploratory / Initiation stage. Those who came to these meetings constitute:-
This starts as soon as a change agent comes into a community. The “Basic nuclear action group.”
agent visits the members of the community either in their homes or At this meeting, staring committee may be chosen or elected. The group
public gatherings. Where the agent is not invited to meet members may then be formulated through a constitution or by law or to remain
he/she may invite him/herself and introduce or present the type of informal.
assistance he/she is willing or able to offer.
The agent in discussion with members should then look for ideas that (3) Discussion stage.
suggest for potential co-operation or local initiative. Noticing through It begins when the agent encourages widespread discussion of the
problem affecting the community. It helps in development of discussion

14
skills especially among members of the committee who will know how
to present and explain ideas.
Members of the community involved are likely to increase their
awareness.
(4) Group decision making stage.
Decision making becomes necessary when there is need for concerns
among members of the group. The decision may be made in a
community wide meeting, here the proposed action is brought to the
attention of members of the group and community who may be unaware
or shown little interest on what was being discussed.
It is also an opportunity for further discussion of the problem during and
after the meeting.
(5) Planning for action stage.
This entails a detailed examination of the problem by the management
committee or a specially chosen task force. Alternative solutions may
also be examined in details.
The goals to be achieved are also set in this stage. The resources needed
and their sources are also agreed upon. The programming of activities in
terms of who does what, where its done, how it is done is agreed.
The costing of the project is also done i.e. budgeting.
(6) Action stage.
Here the community members carry out the activities as it was planned.
The type and nature of activities will vary from project to project to
project; but they will generally include:-
 Obtaining resources.
 Seeking sources for help.
The implementation may vary from a few hours, day, weeks, and
months’ e.t.c.
This calls for active involvement of group through contribution of
money, materials and other activities.
(7) Evaluation stage.
Evaluation may be done at every stage of implementation. It reveals the
progress made and the conditions met. Here mistakes can be rectified
and conditions taken into consideration during the subsequent stages of
implementation.
An overall evaluation is needed at the end of the process. Members need
to be assisted by the agent to carry out this evaluation (participant
evaluation). This gives them a chance for self criticism and learning
from experience.
(8) Subsequent action stage.
Biddle and Biddle emphasized/ enforced this stage in what they termed
the new project stage / the continuation stage. In this stage members of
the community take on more (new) project along the lines, following
the experience gained in the first project.
On the basis of experienced gained they are likely to move faster as they
complete one project after the other.
Spontaneous Social Action Model.
This is also nuclear theory of social action. It was postulated by Wilken.
According to this model an idea is first concealed by an individual.
Wilken saw spontaneous social action as taking place through steps.
(a) Job step.
(b) The I step.
(c) The we step.
(d) The Group step.
(e) The Do step.
(1) The job step.
This is where some problem is identified by at least one individual who
interprets it as a job to be done.
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(2) The I step.
This is where individuals has to think of the job with various dimension
and convince others to be willing to invest time and energy and in some
instances, financial resources and reputation to get it done.
(3) The we step.
This is where the individual to others about the task to their interest and
to get their help. Those who will be interested in the task serve as the
local spark plugs. They will motivate others to be interested to the task.
(4) The group step.
At this point a general concern for a problem has been identified; and
there may be need for group discussion. The formation of the group and
its decision creates the need for action to start.
(5) The do step.
This begins when members organize themselves for action as agreed by
the group members.
Quasi-Equilibrium Social Action Model.
The model was developed by Lewrey who noted that it is more suitable
where work is done in group especially in a crisis situation.
The model is based in the assumption that:-
1) There are positive forces in a situation that supports given level
of behaviour and negative forces which oppose the given level
of behaviour.
2) When the positive and negative forces are bound, the state of
equilibrium is reached.
3) Change in the level of behaviour can result when the positive
forces are strengthened or new positive forces are added.
Lewrey believed that change could be brought about in three steps:-
1) Unfreezing (discovering) – they discover they have a problem.
2) Moving – altering the negative forces and strengthening the positive
forces.
3) Freezing – stabilizing the situation at a new level of behaviour.
N/B. I t involves strengthening ideas that lead to positive change of
development and weakening the ideas that are barriers to
transformation.
The negative forces may include:-
 Cultural barriers
 Persons opposed to the problem.
 Lack of resources.
The change agent is therefore suppose to increase positive forces by
making them aware, soliciting for resources, by educating.
Social Advocacy Model.
This model is based on the fact that disadvantaged people in a particular
society need to be mobilized and organized to get power and resources
so that the can be moved, meaningfully and democratically involved in
development.
Here agent identifies a particular disadvantaged group of people in a
society with their problems. He then appeals for support in terms of
resources contrast to the problem.
This is very common in rural areas where external agencies or
enlightened person identifies problem and looks for help from various
sources so as to facilitate the combination of the need.
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TOPIC V: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT WORKER.
These are the key players in community development work and are
generally referred to as change agents, field agents or community
mobilizers.
Change Agents.
Rogers and Shoe Makar view change agents as professionals who
influence inventions, decisions in a direction viewed as desirable. The
main function is to seek the adaptation of new ideas but they may also
attempt to slowdown or prevent certain innovation. They are seen as
community helpers or as persons or groups that help to facilitate the
process of change in a given community.
The term change agent is based on the idea that most socio-economic
changes that take place in a community are planned.
Some examples of change agents in Kenya include:-
 Workers in the public service agencies e.g. health, cooperative
development, water e.t.c.
 Those employed by parastatals e.g. Kenya Tea Development
agencies, Care International, World Vision, Family planning
association of Kenya.
 Most of these agents are employed as public health officers,
community nurses, and project managers’ e.t.c.
Roles of Change Agents.
1. They serve as communication link to the agency system on the one
hand and the client on the other hand.
2. They are seen as mediators between the agency and the community.
3. They are encouragers, guiders, brokers, activists and advocates who
speak on behalf of the community.
4. They help awaken members of the community and make hem feel
discontented with their situation.
5. Through discussion, listening and asking questions, they help people
see the nature of discontent, their causes and organize them for action.
6. As guiders, they help community move in the direction it has chosen.
7. They may suggest alternative causes of action, but the choice of any
of them and the means of attaining the goals are left to the community.
8. Agents take the initiative rather than waiting for community members
to come to them.
9. As advisers or consultant agents, they may not get involved in the day
to day community work but may be experts in health, agriculture e.t.c.
10. They act as advocates committed to the aspirations and desires of
community members.
11. They bring about social cohesion.
Factors influencing the performance of Community Development
workers.
1. The Community.
A change agent has to understand a community in terms of its physical
environment, social, economic and cultural conditions including its
history and experience of development program (through a baseline
survey)
2. The People.
These are the members of community who are gradually replaced
through biological reproduction.
3. Culture of the people.
This comprises the community values, traditions, norms and the belief
system which needs to be known by the change agent.
4. Personality Traits.
The characters of members of a community need to be understood by
community development worker.
5. Time.
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As any other resource, it is scarce and should be planned and is used to 1. To reduce resistance to change, the development workers should
maximize for change activities. The change agent also needs to know a create preliminary sensitization to communities to make them accept the
community in terms of time. change.
2. The development worker should solicit for more funds from donors
6. Community leadership and power structure. (external and internal) and even engage in other fundraising activities so
The local power structure should be identified and enhanced to avoid as to reduce the problem of adequate funds.
failure programs which often results from negligence of such structures. 3. The development workers must ensure that he/she involves the
community in planning so as to prevent lack of ownership.
4. The government should provide adequate security to development
The Impact of Change Agent or Community Development Worker workers in communities.
on Community Development. 5. The development worker should ensure that the development plans
1. Improved standard of living among the people whom they work with. are at per with the culture of the community.
2. They led to the improvement of social services.
3. They encourage social cohesion.
4. They create job opportunities. TOPIC VI: COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT.
5. They promote social justice since they advocates for the rights of
individuals. Empowerment refers to giving a lawful power or authority to individual
6. They motivate people to be self reliant. groups, institution or community to act.
7. They increase community awareness. It’s a process that involves people gaining strength, confidence and
vision, towards positive changes in their lives either individually or with
Challenges facing Community Development Workers. others.
 Hostile or extreme environmental conditions. The people are given authority in determining their own destiny.
 Insecurity in some areas.
 Embezzlement of funds. Importance of Community Empowerment.
 Inadequate resources (material and human). i. It promotes optimum use of local resources and abilities i.e. the
 Lack of sense of ownership. sills, talents, experiences and technology.
 Political interference/ influence. ii. It increases the scope of attaining social justice, equality, basic
 Political instability. human rights and freedom.
 Lack / poor participation. iii. It promotes social cohesion and restores social fabrics (links) in
 Culture of the community. decision making process as regards development.
 Resistance to change. iv. The community is able t develop and sustain community
development programs.
Ways of managing the challenges of Community Development v. It enhances people’s political awareness which enables them
worker. voice their views and concern.

18
 vi. Empowerment enlightens people and the community to be able
to deal with their problems more effectively.
vii. Empowerment generally improves people’s living standards.
Ways of Empowering the community.
1. Formation of social groups and organization
2. Creating effective leadership.
3. Sharing new ideas especially through networking.
4. Through exposure.
5. Through education.
6. Through exchange programs or inter community visits.
Methods of Empowering the community.
1. Training.
This can be done to equip the community with necessary skills and
knowledge on how they carry out certain activities that will help
improve their living standards.
It provides the community with knowledge and widens their scope of
operation in particular activities.
6. Seminars and workshops.
These provide the opportunity where individuals are taught in specific
fields resulting in increased confidence.
Factors that effects / necessary for community empowerment.
(a) Skills and capability of change agents.
Because they are the key players in empowerment process, agents
should have relevant skill to stir the empowerment process.
(b) Attitude of the community.
A community may have positive/ negative attitude towards a new idea
or even the agent. This means the community may accept or reject the
change.

2. Participation. (c) Leadership.

Community members’ involvement in development programs broaden Effective leadership is necessary to guide people through the process.
their capacity and equip them with necessary experience as well as
employment. (d) Government policy.
If the government policy should be designed to facilitate development
3. Mass Media. through community empowerment.
This can be used to reach out to many people by giving them
information about given activities. (e) Cultural values.
Negative cultural values may be detrimental to an empowerment
4. Demonstration. initiative.
The use of demonstration and practical work equips people with skills
which enable them to carry out their own work. (f) Community unity.
This offers the requisite community effort to achieve community
5. Education. development goals.

19
(g) Resources and infrastructural facilities.
The availability / otherwise of adequate local resources as well as
developed infrastructural facilities impact on community empowerment.
(h) Community based organization and other institution.
Social institutions in the community help to stimulate ideas and
eventually program for community empowerment.
Impact of community empowerment in the community.
a) It promotes optimum use of local resources and local capacity
such as skills, talents, experiences and technologies.
b) There is wider scope of attaining social justice, equality, basic
human rights and freedom with empowerment.
c) Empowerment promotes social cohesion and restores social
fabrics in decision making processes that regard development.
d) Through empowerment the society is able to develop and
sustain community development projects/ programs.
e) Empowerment enhances people’s political awareness which
enable them voice their views and concerns.
f) Empowerment enlightens people and the community to be able
to deal with their problems more effectively.
TOPIC VII: COLLABORATIONS, PARTNERSHIPS AND
ORGANIZATION NETWORK.
To collaborate is to work together towards achieving a common and
desirable goal.
Partnership is the coming together of different entities to achieve a
particular goal.
Organizational collaboration is therefore the coming together of
organizations with other partners to achieve a desired goal.
The impetus / rational for collaboration (why).
These are reasons for collaboration:-
1. It provides members of partnership with support and encouragement
to work towards achieving a goal which is challenging.
2. It facilitates formation of masses needed to heighten voices critical in
influencing decision.
3. Partners address problems which may be challenging to individuals.
4. Encourages the exchange of ideas and information through common
publication, seminars, workshops and even common data bases on line.
5. Provides some safety nets/ umbrella bodies to handle delicate issues.
6. Coordinates the use of resources hence avoiding the duplication of
the efforts.
7. Facilitates joint projects that could be too costly and complex for
organization work done.
8. Links people of diverse backgrounds, discipline and profession.
Nature / features of partnership.
1. Freedom and independence.
In partnership the maintenance of independence is encouraged so that
organizations do not lose their identity when partnership is formed.
2. Voluntary as parties forming the partnership is free.
3. Bonds of collaboration are built on mutual trust.
4. Tend to focus on specific objectives.
5. Partners have different skills, talent and it’s their objectives that
unify.
6. Relationship often involve helping each other
7. Existence is based on free information flow and where some
members try to be protective over some issues, tension might be created
leading to a compromise on internal team work.
Factors to consider when forming partnership.
1. Choose partners who can be trusted.
20
Long term partnership require trust and may choose to collaborate with
a known partner with whom one has worked with before.
2. Find the right balance.
The more the collaboration project is the greater the chance that it will
serve for a long time; however, the more partners included, the longer,
slower and risky the structuring.
3. Put house in order before entering into a partnership.
Make sure there is support in your organization before sharing.
4. Strive to understand the working structure, policies and
objectives of other partners.
Variation is reporting, inflexible policies or partner patronizing attitude
can limit the effectiveness of partners’ contribution towards achieving
common objectives.
5. Try to understand the position of members before joining partnership.
6. Try to understand the financial management before joining the
partnership.
7. Establish the partnership arrangement for promoting partners’
participation in decision making. It helps to avoid the danger of being
isolated.
8. Avoid paper partnership/ Electronic partnership.
Members must take time for face to face discussions otherwise; one will
be there to update other members. They should not only communicate
through e-mails or phones.
Challenges to collaboration and partnership.
1. Lack of clear objectives especially when the partnerships are created
in a hurry. This can create internal and external manipulation. It is also
difficult in such situation to evaluate performance effectively.
2. Ineffective management styles; partnerships whose decision making
is overcentralised and bureaucratic tend to have problems in
coordination especially if partners cover a wide area.
3. Domination; certain member partners may tend to dominate others
especially if they are the sources of maintenance. This is common
where donors are involved.
4. Members disparity; partnership may bring together members with
diverse cultural values, norms and ways of doing things; this could lead
to misunderstanding and in turn compromise team work.
5. Limited resources; when resources are limited then the operation will
be inadequate.
6. Competition and mistrust; this is often a problem where there is a
weak internal structure and guiding policies with each other.
7. Incidence of misinformation; ideally partners should freely make
available to other partners correct into regarding the working with
others. This however not be the case and therefore misunderstanding.
Strategies used in building and strengthening partnerships.
1. Partnership should be organization working towards the same goals.
2. Meet potential partners e.g. by attending their meeting / inviting them
to your meetings.
3. Assist potential partners with their special interest.
4. Bring other people’s attention to work.
5. Share all the vital information with them.
6. Get the partners interested in your objectives, discuss your ideas and
objectives with them.
7. Be open to their ideas.
8. Ask them to do something useful to reach your objectives.
9. Start the partnership on a small scale.
10. Do for the others as much as they do for you.
Intervention measures to challenges in partnership.
1. The role of different members of the partnership should be clearly
spelt out.
2. Self interest should be avoided and different interest should be
negotiated.
3. The goals should be clear and common to all members.
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 4. Planning should be jointly carried out. It also recommend punishment to be meted/ award to be given
5. There should be a conflict resolution approach in place. following judgment based on law.
6. The partnership should be realistic about the resources.\ Local Government.
These are also known as local authority.
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY They operate as councils and are made up of councilors who are elected
DEVELOPMENT. to represent wards or are nominated. They also include chief officers
seconded by various central government ministries e.g. education
Government: This is a body charged with the responsibility of ruling a officer.
country; a nation or any other territory to lay down rules and regulations There are several councils or local authority in Kenya on the basis of the
and ensuring they are adhered to. areas they cover and population size e.g. city council, urban, county,
In Kenya, government is carried out at two levels:- town councils e.t.c.
 Central government.
 Local government. Powers of Local Government.
1. Enacting by laws with the approval of the Ministry of Local
Central Government. government.
The central government is the unity government which covers the entire 2. Levying local taxes.
country. 3. Issuing business permits.
It is divided into three (3) main branches, namely:- 4. Inspecting public health.
5. Approving housing plan.
i. The Legislature.
This is the parliamentary arm of the government. It makes or end laws Functions of Local Government/ Authorities.
governing various areas of life in the country. 1. They construct and maintain roads.
2. They provide water and sanitation services.
ii. Executive. 3. They establish and maintain social amenities e.g. hospitals,
It comprises of - President. dispensaries, security lights e.t.c.
- Civil servant 4. They regulate business.
- Cabinet. 5. They control and maintain land use.
It carries out the functions that are being laid out by other arms of the 6. They provide housing.
government. 7. They regulate and supervise the learning institution such as nursery
schools and adult education.
iii. Judiciary. 8. They regulate the use of natural resources such as sand, quarry.
This consists of the court and the court system. Its main function is to 9. Some are responsible for management of game reserves.
interpret laws rather than judgment whenever laws are broken or appear
to have been broken.

22
Specific Areas of Government involvement in Community
Development.
1. Self help Group.
The government encourages the formation of self-help group so that
community involve themselves in planning and implementing their own
community development initiatives.
2. Policy on Women Program.
It’s the Government to promote the position of women e.g. through
organization like Maendeleo ya Wanawake, the Women Bureau.
3. Policy on the Youth.-The Government has come up with various
arrangements to help promote development of the youth e.g. the
national youth service, youth polytechnics, 4k clubs.
4. Policy to the Aged.-The government supports agencies that deals
with the aged e.g. through national security funds, the government help
the workers to save for the old age.
5. Policy on Social Welfare.-There are policies aimed at rehabilitating
the maladjusted individuals in the society.
6. Administration of community development programs-.The
government monitors the various community development activities
through the Ministry of Gender, Culture and Sports.
7. Provision of Security.-This enhances donor confidence.
8. Policy on Population.-The government educates people on the need
for small families.
9. Provision of Resources.-Especially skilled personnel e.g. teachers,
doctors, who assist on community development activities.
10. Building and Maintenance of Infrastructure.-E.g. roads,
electricity, which facilitates the prices of community development.
11. Linking the community with external donor agencies.
12. Building and maintaining social amenities e.g. training
institutions, hospitals, schools e.t.c.
13. Ensuring equitable and fair distribution of resources e.g. the
CDF funds.
14. Making policies that enhance community development.
15. The government decentralizes the service to the grassroots’ level
e.g. the constituency level.
16. The government provides the legal framework within which the
development agencies e.g. NGOS enter and operate.
17. The government provides land and sites for communities to
locate their projects.
Reasons for Government involvement in Community Development.
1. The government provides security.
2. Some activities need government supervision.
3. Some programs are so big that only the government may provide the
required logistics.
4. Some activities are too costly that only the government may have
resources to implement them.
5. Some require International Networking hence the need for
government assistance.
SUSTAINABILITY OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMS.
Sustainability: Is the ability of projects to continue meeting the goals
for which they were conceived and are being implemented; it’s about
project being able to reach its objectives now and in the future.
Project sustainability is therefore a key element in community
development project because once initiated, a project should serve the
community now and in posterity.
Strategies used to sustain Community Development.
1. Bottom up approach.
Is where the community themselves play a major role in the program
starting from needs, identification, decision making, designing and
policies process e.t.c. until the process is complete. In this way
23
community feels part and parcel of the project and will participate fully
in its sustainability.
Also expands communities’ knowledge and experience making them
more capable of sustaining programs.
2. Having effective leadership structure.
Strong effective leadership is capable of organizing material resources
and people in a community. Such leadership also gives directions and
makes wise decisions that are necessary for programme sustainability.
3. Proper use of locally available resources.
Programs that are based on locally available resources, manpower
materials and use them economically have proved to be more
sustainable.
4. Sense of ownership.
Ideally, the community should have a sense of ownership in the
program right from the initiation stage. This tends to attract more
interests from the community members in the routine operation of
projects. It is them that they can more willingly provide their resources
and skills.
5. Security.
It protects property and people.
Encourages positive attitude towards work hence community
mobilization towards participation becomes easy.
It ensures peaceful workmen for people and also ensures the
preservation of program properties.
6. Developing skills personnel.
Where technical know how is required, skills and knowledge are
important in sustainability. The skills and knowledge of personnel can
be developed through training, seminars, and workshops for members of
the community.
7. Educating people on the Benefits of the Project.
If the people are well educated on the benefits of a project, they are
more likely to support it by sacrificing their time and resources which
will encourage the sustainability.
8. Identifying problems and causes/failure.Community members
should help identify problems and their solutions in program as they
continuously tackle their problems, their sense of ownership of the
program, uses and with it, the probability of sustenance.
9. Promoting the sense of belonging and responsibility.
Community members should be made to have a sense of responsibility
for the program so as to work towards the success of sustainability.
Importance of Sustainability of Community Development projects.
1. It creates self reliance to the community since community manages
and sustains their own project instead of relying on outsiders
2. It helps sustain future generations; a well sustained project is able to
serve many generations to come.
3. Improve living standards for members of the community. Sustained
projects create positive change in the lives of the community.
4. Development of confidence.
Sustained projects help individuals build confidence in holding
community development projects.
5. It’s a channel through which other development activities can be
sustained; through sustained projects, development projects or partners
will have confidence in a community and support other programs with
the community.
6. Sustainability improves the community capacity, knowledge and
skills. It increases the community capacity to handle other project in
future.
7. It leads to proper utilization of local resources. Sustained projects
ensure there is little waste of resources.
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 8. Sustainability creates a sense of ownership and belonging members
of the community feel they own the project and are capable of
protecting it.
9. It promotes unity among members of a community that have
successfully maintained a project are more likely to be united.
10. It creates employment.
Challenges of sustaining Community Development projects.
1. Lack of skills and knowledge.
2. Inadequate funds.
3. Poor leadership.
4. Rejection by the community.
5. Insecurity
6. Natural calamities
7. Political influence
8. Biasness
9. Poor infrastructure
10. Lack of unity which may hamper collective effort.
Role of Change Agents in sustaining community development
projects
i. Acts as linkage between donors and community members to help
raise some funds.
ii. Provides training facilities to improve knowledge and skills of
community members.
iii. Help identify good leadership structure and strengthen them through
training to avoid failures in the projects.
iv. Mobilize community members to participate in the initiatives of
development projects.
v. Ask the Government to provide security for the developed projects.
vi. Initiate projects according to the weather conditions.
vii. Train community members on new ideas and benefits of
sustainability of development projects.
viii. Request the Government to help put up the infrastructure to facilitate
the sustainability of projects e.g. good drainage system during
drought for farmers.
Factors that promote sustainability of community development
projects
i. Good leadership structure to effectively guide people on the benefits
of sustaining projects.
ii. Community unity; for example, when the community members are
united the development projects will be sustained.
iii. Community attitude; community members may have positive or
negative attitude towards the development projects; positive attitude
leads to sustainability of development projects.
iv. Availability of good skills and knowledge; when community
members have good skills and knowledge about the benefits of
sustainability of development projects, the projects will be
sustainable for long.
v. Availability of good infrastructural facilities, the availability of
otherwise leads to unsustainable development project e.g. good
drainage system for irrigation.
vi. Adequate funds which will lead to good maintenance of
development projects.
vii. Good political influence which will be ideal to facilitate and
maintain the sustainable development projects e.g. political leaders
providing water and sanitation services.
viii. High security levels which promote the sustainability of
development projects against theft cases.
EMERGING TRENDS IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT.
Emerging Trends in Social Work.
1. Pertaining to community based development.
i. Today there are procedures to facilitate wider participation in social
services.
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 ii. There has been greater decentralization of Government decision v. There are today legal policy and framework which increases
making which has boosted community based development people’s participation.
activities. vi. There are appropriate procedures and methods which facilitate
iii. There are legal framework which allows people’s participation. wider participation in social services.
iv. Social workers today help to shape local leadership skills since they vii. There is promotion of innovation and use of locally adaptable skills.
are more who run non-governmental projects. viii. Job opportunities have been created for community members.
v. There are increased community ownership development programs
since they are involved through participation.
vi. Communication and understanding especially among rural
community has been enhanced.
vii. Job opportunities have been created.
viii. There has been improved technology hence leading to improved
living standards.
ix. There has been the promotion of innovation and the use of locally
adaptable skills.
x. It has been an improvement of provision of services such as health,
education through hospitals, colleges, schools, dispensaries e.t.c.
xi. There has been provision of funds and other resources by both
governmental and non-governmental e.g. this has helped in
humanitarian intervention and as well as project implementations.
xii. Training is most available to the community development and
social work professionals. Today communities are more dependent
instead of relying on only hand outs provided by social workers.

2) Pertaining to empowerment as a basis for Social Development.

i. Rural people’s internal capacities have been strengthened at local
levels.
ii. There is promotion of gender public awareness.
iii. The rights of immigrants, refugees and IDPS (internal displaced
persons) have been guaranteed through education services, health
care and other capacity building programs.
iv. There is provision of information to individuals, families and
groups.

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