Lecture 2. Fluid Statics

FLUIDS AT REST (FLUID STATICS)
FLUID PRESSURE
1) Pressure of a Liquid
When a liquid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force at all points on the sides and
the bottom of the vessel. The force per unit area is called average intensity of
pressure.
𝑑𝐹
𝑃=
𝑑𝐴 P = pressure of a liquid
if the pressure is uniform over F = weight of the liquid
the total area, then A = area at the bottom
supporting the fluid
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
FLUID PRESSURE
a) Hydrostatic Pressure
It is the pressure exerted by the fluid and is a pressure being related to a height of
a column of fluid.
𝑃 =𝛾ℎ
P = pressure of a liquid
𝛾 = weight density of the liquid
h = height of the liquid being
considered
z = reference line or datum line
FLUID PRESSURE
b) Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
 The fluid is considered to be at rest and in equilibrium, and the forces must be in balance
 The downward force will be due to the pressure applied at the top of the column plus the
weight of the fluid and at the bottom of the column, the vertical force must be in
equilibrium and is due to pressure at the bottom of the column.
FLUID PRESSURE
b) Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
Relation between elevation and pressure on a fluid element
FLUID PRESSURE
PASCAL’S LAW: “ The intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is the same in
all directions.”
FLUID PRESSURE
2. Atmospheric, Gage, Vacuum and Absolute Pressure
Definition:
a) Atmospheric pressure – a pressure measured using
a barometer when the atmospheric air exerts a
normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in
contact. It is also known as barometric pressure.
b) Gage pressure – is a pressure measured from the
level of atmospheric pressure as the reference
datum and usually measured by most pressure
recording instruments like pressure gage and
manometers.
c) Vacuum pressure – a pressure measured below
atmospheric pressure (also known as negative
gage pressure) 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒  positive gage
d) Absolute pressure – the true pressure measured
using zero pressure (perfect vacuum) as reference. 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐  negative gage
FLUID PRESSURE
Atmospheric Pressure, Patm
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi
= 29.92 in. Hg
= 760 mm Hg or Torr
= 34 ft. water
= 1.03 kgf/cm2
Measurement of Pressure
Pressure measurement is usually accomplished with the use of instrument which utilizes the
effects of a pressure difference on two sides of a sensing element or on the two ends of a liquid
column.  Bourdon gage
 Barometers
 Manometers
a) Bourdon gage – An instrument for
measuring gage pressure. The pressure
is introduced into the curved, hollow
metal tube which is usually made of
brass. One end of the tube is fixed to
the frame of the gage and the
remainder of the tube is free to move.
As the pressure introduced into the
gage is increased, the tube gradually
straightens, because of its shape, and
the pointer is activated to indicate the
pressure on the face of the gage.
See figure, a pipe filled with fluid, where the pressure at point A is
measured as follows:
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝛾𝑧
Example: What is the pressure at point A inside the pipe if the

reading indicated in the gage is 25 psi and z = 30 cm.
The liquid carried by the pipe has a specific gravity of
0.88.
30 1
Solution: 𝑝𝐴 = 25 + 62.4 × 0.88
2.54 123
𝑝𝐴 = 25.38 𝑝𝑠𝑖
b) Barometers – An instrument which is most frequently used for the
purpose of accurately measuring the atmospheric pressure. Refer to
figure, the atmospheric pressure is being exerted downward on the face
of the pool and the liquid in the tube drops to the level h above the pool.
Where, above the liquid meniscus at the top of the tube is a near vacuum
(in this case, the vapor pressure of the mercury).
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑣 + 𝛾ℎ
In case of mercury, where at t = 70oF, pv = 0.00154 psia, S.G. = 13.6,
and the height h = 29.92 in.
1
𝑝 = 0.00154 + 62.4 × 13.6 × 29.92
123
𝑝 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
b) Barometers – An instrument which is most frequently used for the
purpose of accurately measuring the atmospheric pressure. Refer to
figure, the atmospheric pressure is being exerted downward on the face
of the pool and the liquid in the tube drops to the level h above the pool.
Where, above the liquid meniscus at the top of the tube is a near vacuum
(in this case, the vapor pressure of the mercury).
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑣 + 𝛾ℎ
In case of water, where at t = 70oF, pv = 0.36 psia, S.G. = 1.0, and the
height h = 33.08 ft.
1
𝑝 = 0.36 + 62.4 × 1.0 × 3 (33.08 × 12)
12
𝑝 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
c) Piezometer column – a simple device for measuring moderate
pressure of liquids, consists of a tube in which the liquid can freely
rise without overflowing. The height of the liquid in the tube will
give the value of the pressure head directly. To reduce capillary
error the tube diameter should be at least 0.5 in.
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ where: 𝑝 = pressure of the liquid measured at point A

𝛾 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
d) Manometers – are pressure measuring instrument which are commonly employed for the purpose
of measuring tank and pipe line pressures or some other container of fluid.
Differential manometer
How to measure the pressure of the fluid at point A inside the pipe
of the figure shown?
Solution:
𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾𝐴 𝑧 + 𝛾𝑀 𝑦
Example 1. Determine the pressure of the liquid at point A. The

liquid inside the pipe has a specific gravity of 0.85.
Height z = 12 in. and y = 13 in. The manometer used is
a mercury manometer.
using the equation derived from the figure
𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾𝐴 𝑧 + 𝛾𝑀 𝑦
Solution:
𝛾𝐴 = 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑆. 𝐺.𝐴
𝛾𝑀 = 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑆. 𝐺.𝑀
hence
𝑙𝑏𝑓 12 𝑙𝑏𝑓 13
𝑝𝐴 = 62.4 3 × 0.85 𝑓𝑡 + (62.4 3 × 13.6) 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 12 𝑓𝑡 12
𝑙𝑏𝑓 1𝑓𝑡 2
𝑝𝐴 = 972.4 ×
𝑓𝑡 2 144𝑖𝑛2
𝑝𝐴 = 6.75 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Solution:
𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾𝐴 𝑧 − 𝛾𝑀 𝑦
Example 2. Assuming the fluid flowing in the pipe has a specific
gravity of 0.90, where z = 14 in. and y = 8 in.
Determine the gage pressure at A and the absolute
pressure at standard atmospheric condition. Mercury
manometer is used.
Using the equation derived from the figure
𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾𝐴 𝑧 − 𝛾𝑀 𝑦
Solution:
hence
𝑝𝐴 = 62.4 3 × 0.90 𝑓𝑡 − (62.4 3 × 13.6) 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 12 𝑓𝑡 12
𝑝𝐴 = −500.24 2 ×
𝑓𝑡 144𝑖𝑛2
𝑝𝐴 = −3.47 𝑝𝑠𝑖
where
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = −3.47 + 14.7 = 11.23 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 11.23 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Solution:
𝑝𝐴 = −𝛾𝐴 𝑧 − 𝛾𝑀 𝑦
Example 3. Assuming the fluid flowing inside the pipe has a specific
gravity of 0.82, where z = 10 in. and y = 8 in. Determine the
gage pressure at A and the absolute pressure at standard
atmospheric condition when the liquid at point B is a
carbon tetrachloride with specific gravity of 1.50.
Using the derived equation from the figure
𝑝𝐴 = −𝛾𝐴 𝑧 − 𝛾𝑀 𝑦
Solution:
hence
𝑝𝐴 = − 62.4 3 × 0.82 𝑓𝑡 − (62.4 3 × 1.50) 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 12 𝑓𝑡 12
𝑝𝐴 = −105.04 ×
𝑓𝑡 2 144𝑖𝑛2
𝑝𝐴 = −0.73 𝑝𝑠𝑖
where
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = −0.73 + 14.7
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 13.97 𝑝𝑠𝑖
How to measure the pressure of the fluid at point A inside the pipe and
the differential pressure of the manometer shown?
Solution:
𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾𝐴 𝑧𝐴 + 𝛾𝑀 𝑦 − 𝛾𝐵 𝑧𝐵 + 𝑝𝐵
hence, the differential pressure
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾𝐴 𝑧𝐴 + 𝛾𝑀 𝑦 − 𝛾𝐵 𝑧𝐵
Note: There is no fixed or general equation to use is solving problems

involving manometers. It depends upon the variation of hydrostatic
pressure with depth, in short it depends on the figure or diagram of
the manometer.
Example 4. Determine the pressure difference in psi between m and
n as shown by the differential manometer.
Solution:
𝑝𝑚 = 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 4.0 + 𝑦 − 3.2 + 𝛾𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 3.2 − 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑦 + 𝑝𝑛
𝑝𝑚 = 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.8 + 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑦 + 𝛾𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 3.2 − 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑦 + 𝑝𝑛
𝑝𝑚 − 𝑝𝑛 = 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.8 + 𝛾𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 3.2
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑝𝑚 − 𝑝𝑛 = 62.4 0.8 𝑓𝑡 + 62.4 × 13.6 3.2 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑙𝑏𝑓 1 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑝𝑚 − 𝑝𝑛 = 2,765.57 ×
𝑓𝑡 2 144 𝑖𝑛2
𝑝𝑚 − 𝑝𝑛 = 19.21 psi
Force on Plane or Flat Surface
Analysis:
Force on Plane or Flat Surface
Analysis:
Considering the elemental area shown (horizontal
strip):
If 𝑥 = width of the elemental strip
𝑑𝑦 = height of the elemental strip
then, 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑥𝑑𝑦
where 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
and ℎ = 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
from 𝑝 = 𝑑𝐹/𝑑𝐴
hence 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ‫𝐴𝑑𝑦 ׬‬
∴ 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑦𝑐 𝐴
where ℎ𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 where: ℎ𝑐 = vertical depth of the centroid
ℎ𝑝 = vertical depth of the center of pressure or point
so that 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴 of application of resultant force
Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces
(Total Pressure and Center of Pressure)
a) Total Pressure – is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface (either
plane or curved) when the fluid comes in contact with the surface. This force is always
normal to the surface.
 Force on Flat or Plane Surface
𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴
where: P = pressure at the centroid of the immersed plane surface

δ = specific weight of the liquid
A = area of the plane surface
hc = depth of the center of gravity of the immersed surface
from the liquid surface
Center of Pressure on Immersed Surfaces
Analysis:
Taking OX as an axis of moment of the elementary force
𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝐴
so that 𝑦 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑦 𝛾 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑦 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝐴
or 𝑦𝑝 𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾𝑦𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝐴
hence 𝑦𝑝 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ‫𝑝𝑦 ׬‬2 𝑑𝐴
recall ‫𝑝𝑦 ׬‬2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑜 (moment of inertia of the plane
about the axis o)
hence 𝑦𝑝 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐼𝑜
𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐼𝑜
or 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐹
where: ℎ𝑐 = vertical depth of the centroid
ℎ𝑝 = vertical depth of the center of pressure or point
of application of resultant force
Center of Pressure on Immersed Surfaces
Analysis:
cont.
recall 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐼𝑜 𝐼𝑜
so that 𝑦𝑝 = =
𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
where 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑦𝑐 2 𝐴 (transfer moment of inertia)
𝐼𝑐 +𝑦𝑐 2 𝐴 𝐼
hence 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦 𝐴 = 𝑦 𝑐𝐴 + 𝑦𝑐
𝑐 𝑐
𝐼
∴ 𝑦𝑝 − 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑦 𝑐𝐴
𝑐
let 𝑒 = 𝑦𝑝 − 𝑦𝑐 (eccentricity)
𝐼
hence 𝑒 = 𝑦 𝑐𝐴 where: ℎ𝑐 = vertical depth of the centroid
𝑐
𝐼 ℎ𝑝 = vertical depth of the center of pressure or point
where: 𝑒 = ℎ 𝑐𝐴 (at θ = 90 deg.) of application of resultant force
𝑐
Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces
(Total Pressure and Center of Pressure)
b) Center of Pressure – is defined as the point of application of the resultant pressure on
the surface.
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑝 = ℎ𝑐 +
ℎ𝑐 𝐴
𝐼𝑐
𝑒=
ℎ𝑐 𝐴
where: e = distance between the centroid and the center of pressure
Ic = moment of inertia of the plane surface about the centroid
hc = depth of the center of gravity of the immersed surface
from the liquid surface
hp = depth of the center of pressure from the liquid surface
Force on Submerged Curved Surface
Summary of the method in calculating a force on a curved surface:
1. To calculate the resultant force against a submerged curved
surface, compute both vertical and horizontal components.
2. The vertical component of force is determined by calculating the
weight of liquid (real or imaginary) vertically above the curved
surface.
a) If the curved surface is submerged so that a real volume of
liquid exist above the surface, then the vertical component of
force against the curve surface is downward, and acts
through the center of gravity of the liquid volume.
b) If the curved surface is submerged so that an imaginary
volume of liquid is used above the surface, then the vertical
component of force against the curve surface is upward and
acts through the center of gravity of the imaginary volume
(see first figure).This vertical force is also the force of
buoyancy, which is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
Summary of the method in calculating a force on a curved surface:
3. The horizontal component of the resultant force on the
curved surface is calculated by horizontally projecting the
surface onto a vertical plane and treating the projected area
as a submerged vertical plane surface. The magnitude of the
force FH is computed by the volume of the pressure
diagram.
𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾ℎ𝑝 𝐴
where: ℎ𝑝 = is the vertical distance form the free surface of
the liquid to the centroid of the projected area.
𝐴 = projected area of the curved surface
4. Calculate the magnitude, the direction and the location of
the resultant force
a) Total force on the curve surface:
𝐹= 𝐹𝑣 2 + 𝐹ℎ 2
b) Direction of the resultant force on the curve surface with the horizontal:
𝐹𝑣
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝐹ℎ
Buoyancy and Floatation
Archimedes Principle:
“A body floating or submerged in a fluid is buoyed (lifted) upward by an
unbalanced force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced”.
Principle of Buoyancy:
“A submerged or floating object is buoyed up with a force equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the object”.
Buoyancy and Floatation Analysis:
 Summation of horizontal forces is zero (not shown).
Illustration:  Resultant of vertical forces is collinear and passes
through the center of gravity, causing no torque or
rotation.
 Object has no velocity or acceleration.
where:
W = weight of the object = 𝛾𝑜 𝑉𝑜
Fs = support force
Fu = upward force
Fd = downward force
Fb = buoyant force = Fu – Fd
For figure c and d, where Fs = 0 σ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 (say for figure 1)
hence Fs + Fu - W – Fd = 0
W = Fb Fs = W + Fu – Fd = W - Fb
Buoyant Force:
Buoyant Force, Fb = Weight of the displaced liquid, Wf
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑊𝑓 = 𝛾𝑓 × 𝑉𝑖 where: 𝛾𝑓 = weight density of the liquid
𝑉𝑖 = volume of the object that is immersed on the fluid
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑊𝑓 = 𝛾𝑓 × 𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 = volume of the liquid that is displaced
1) If object is totally submerged:

a) Buoyant Force, Fb = Weight of object in air, Win air – Weight of object in liquid, Win liquid
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝛾𝑓 × 𝑉𝑖
a) Volume immersed = Total volume of the object
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑜
Buoyant Force:
Buoyant Force, Fb = Weight of the displaced liquid, Wf
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑊𝑓 = 𝛾𝑓 × 𝑉𝑖 where: 𝛾𝑓 = weight density of the liquid
𝑉𝑖 = volume of the object that is immersed on the fluid
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑊𝑓 = 𝛾𝑓 × 𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 = volume of the liquid that is displaced
1) If object is floating:
a) Buoyant Force, Fb = Weight of object, Wo
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑊𝑜 = 𝛾𝑓 × 𝑉𝑖
a) Volume immersed, Vi = Volume of the object, Vo – Volume exposed, Ve
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑒
Boyles’s Law Application
Boyle’s law and hydrostatic pressure concepts are applicable in solving
problems regarding immersion of hollow container in fluids. At constant
temperature, the volume of gas varies inversely as the pressure applied to gas.
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 at constant temperature
FLUID AT REST (FLUID STATICS):
Examples:
1) A man is weighing 64 kgf cause a flat board 30 cm thick to be just fully submerged in a sea water (s.g. =
1.03). Neglecting the weight of the flat board, determine its area.
2) An object weighs 90 N in air. When submerged in water it weighs 50 N. Determine the volume of the
object in cubic centimeter.
3) What height of a column of special gage liquid (s.g. = 2.95) would exerts the same pressure as a column
of oil (s.g. = 0.84) 15 ft. high?
4) What is the absolute pressure in psi 30 ft. below the open surface in a tank of oil (s.g. = 0.85) if the
barometric pressure is 28.5 in. of mercury?
5) The center of a vertical circular gate is located 10 ft. below the water surface. If the diameter D of the
gate is 6 ft, what is the force on the gate and where does it act?
FLUID AT REST (FLUID STATICS):
Examples:
6) An iron metal was dropped into a bath of liquid. If the liquid displaces 0.505 lb mass, determine the
radius of the cavity if the 3-inch diameter iron ball is 7.3 times as dense as the water.
7) An air bubble rises from the bottom of a certain well where the temperature is 25oC to the surface where
the temperature is 27oC. Find the percent increase in volume of the bubble if the depth of the well is 5 m.
Assume atmospheric pressure is 101.528 kPa.
8) A hollow cylindrical tank 1 m in diameter and a height of 2.5 m is submerged in water with its open end 3
m below the water surface. Determine the height of air inside the tank and the force required to maintain
the tank to its position.
9) A pressure gage at elevation 20.0 ft on the side of a tank containing a liquid reads 15.5 psi. Another gage
at elevation 13.0 ft reads 12.8 psi. Compute the specific weight, density and specific gravity of the liquid.

Lecture 2. Fluid Statics

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Lecture 2. Fluid Statics

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FLUIDS AT REST (FLUID STATICS)

Example: What is the pressure at point A inside the pipe if the

𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ where: 𝑝 = pressure of the liquid measured at point A

Example 1. Determine the pressure of the liquid at point A. The

Note: There is no fixed or general equation to use is solving problems

where: P = pressure at the centroid of the immersed plane surface

1) If object is totally submerged:

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