Long Line

For very long line (more than 250 Km), the line series impedance and shunt admittance
cannot be assumed to be lumped. They are uniformly distributed over the whole length of the
line.

Consider a small element of length dx of a long line situated at a distance x from the
receiving end. Let ̅ and ̅ denote respectively the series impedance and shunt admittance of
the line for unit length. The voltages at the two ends of the element are denoted as ̅ (towards
the receiving end) and ̅ ̅̅̅̅ (towards the sending end) respectively.

The rise of voltage over the element length dx in the direction of increasing x is ̅̅̅̅
and is equal to the product of current ̅ in the element flowing opposite to the direction of
increasing x and the impedance of the element ̅ dx. Thus,

̅̅̅̅ ( ̅ ) ̅
̅̅̅̅
Or, ̅ ̅ --------(1)

Similarly, ̅̅̅ (̅ )̅
̅̅̅
Or, ̅ ̅ --------(2)

Differentiating equations (1) and (2) w.r.t. x, we get

( ̅) ̅̅̅
̅ ---------(3)

( )̅ ̅̅̅̅
̅ -----------(4)

From equations (2) and (3)

 ( ̅)
̅ ̅ ̅ ---------(5)

From equations (1) and (4)

( )̅
̅ ̅ ̅ --------- (6)

̅
Two important constants of a transmission line are ̅ (Characteristic impedance) √( ̅ )

and ̅ (Propagation constant) √( ̅)( ̅) . Both ̅ and ̅ are complex quantities.

Solution of equation (5) is

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
----------(7)

Differentiating equation (7) w.r.t. x

̅̅̅̅
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
--------(8)

From equations (1) and (8)

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

Or, ̅ [ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ]-----(9)
̅

̅ √( ̅)( ̅ ) √̅
Now, ̅ √( ̅)( ̅) , ̅ ̅ ̅
√ ̅

Hence, equation (9) may be written as

̅ *̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
+ -------- (10)
̅

For x=0, ̅ ̅ , ̅ ̅

Hence, from equations (7) and (10)

̅ ̅ ̅ ------(11)

̅ ̅ ̅ -----(12)
̅ ̅

Solving for ̅ and ̅

̅ ̅ ̅
̅

̅ ̅ ̅
̅

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ( ) ̅
( ) ̅
 ̅ (̅ ̅ ̅ ) ̅ (̅ ̅ ̅ ) ̅
̅ ̅

First term of voltage equation is called Incident voltage wave and second term is called
Reflected voltage wave.

At any point, Voltage = Incident voltage at that point + Reflected voltage at that point.

Now,
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ( ) ̅ ̅ ( )

̅ ( ̅ ) ̅ ̅ ( ̅ )
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ( ) ̅ ( )
̅

̅
( ̅ ) ̅ ( ̅ )
̅

For ,̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ , where is the length of the line.

̅ ̅ ( ̅ ) ̅ ̅ ( ̅ )
̅
̅ ( ̅ ) ̅ ( ̅ )
̅

Now, ̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅

Hence, for a long line,

̅ ̅ ( ̅ )
(̅ )
̅ , ̅ ̅ ( ̅ )
̅

Travelling waves
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ( ) ̅
( ) ̅

|̅ ̅ ̅ | ̅ |̅ ̅ ̅ | ̅
Where (̅ ̅ ̅ ) and (̅ ̅ ̅ )

̅
|̅ ̅ ̅ | |̅ ̅ ̅ |
Or, ̅ ( ) ( )

Instantaneous voltage ( ) can be written as

|̅ ̅ ̅ |
( )
( ) [√

|̅ ̅ ̅ |
( )
√ ]

Or, ( )
Where,
|̅ ̅ ̅ |
√ ( )

|̅ ̅ ̅ |
√ ( )

Now Consider

is a function of two variables- time and distance. The properties of and help to
explain the variation of as a function of distance along the line. The term changes in
magnitude as x changes but , which is identical to , always has a
magnitude of 1 and causes a shift in phase of rad per unit length of the line.

increases in magnitude and advances in phase as distance from the receiving end
increases. Conversely, as progress along the line from the sending end towards the receiving
end is considered, diminishes in magnitude and is retarded in phase. This is the
characteristic of a travelling wave. This is called the incident voltage wave.

At any instant of time t, is sinusoidally distributed along the distance from the
receiving end with amplitude increasing exponentially with distance. , for line having
resistance. At time , the distribution advances in distance phase by( ). Thus the wave is
travelling towards the receiving end and is the incident wave. Line losses cause its amplitude
to decrease exponentially in going from the sending end to the receiving end.

Incident voltage (current) wave

Velocity of propagation of wave, v m/sec

√

For a three phase line,

( ) H/m/phase

F/m/phase
( )

Where, r is radius of conductor

( )

(( ) )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Hence, v = √ m/sec
√

= Velocity of light

The actual velocity of the propagation of wave along the line would be somewhat less than
the velocity of the light.

Surge Impedance Loading

̅
Characteristic impedance, ̅ √( ̅ )

Let ̅
̅
Where r = Resistance of the line per phase for unit length
L (C) = Inductance (Capacitance) of the line per phase for unit length
For a lossless line, r = g = 0

Hence, ̅ √ √ this is a real number.

̅ √ is known as surge impedance of the line.

For overhead line, 400-600 ohm for 3 phase single circuit line
= 200-300 ohm for double circuit line
For underground cable, 40-60 ohm
̅
is known as attenuation constant and is known as phase constant
and is measured in radians per unit length.
Surge Impedance loading is defined as the load that can be delivered by the line having no
resistance, the load being at unity power factor and the load is purely resistive equal to surge
impedance of the line. When dealing with high frequencies or with surges due to lightning,
losses are often neglected and the surge impedance becomes important.

When so loaded, the line supplies a current of

( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
√ √
Amp
√( )

Where is the line to line voltage at the load.

Since the load is purely resistive,

 ( ⁄ )
√
Surge Impedance Loading (S I L) √ √ ⁄
√( ) √( )

watts

Power system engineers sometimes find it convenient to express the power transmitted by a
line in terms of per unit of SIL, that is, as the ratio of the power transmitted to the surge
impedance loading.

In order to increase the power transmitted through a long transmission line either
value of receiving end voltage is to be increased or more than one transmission line can be
run in parallel. The latter method is however very costly.

From the above equation, it is clear that to increase either VR is to be increased or ZC is to

be decreased.

(1) Increase in voltage VR

Nowadays the trend is for higher and higher voltages so that this is the most widely adopted
method to increase the power limit for heavily long transmission lines. But there are some
practical difficulties in this method and it is expensive.

(2) Decrease of Surge impedance ZC

Since the spacing between the conductors cannot be decreased much, it being dependent on
the line voltage and corona etc., the value of ZC cannot be varied as such.

√( )

To decrease either L is decreased using series capacitors or C is increased using shunt

capacitors. Merits and demerits of these are as under:

Shunt capacitors (in parallel with the transmission line) increase the value of C and
thus is decreased. In this case, stability conditions become worse especially when
synchronous machines are used as loads. This method is not used for very long transmission
lines especially where stability limits are present.

Use of capacitors in series with the line has been widely spread in some countries like
U.S.A. and Sweden. This results in a decrease of L so that get decreased. This improves
the stability limit also.
 Ferranti Effect
The effect of the line capacitance is to cause the no-load receiving end voltage to be more
than the sending end voltage. The effect becomes more pronounced as the line length
increases. This phenomenon is known as the Ferranti effect.

A simple explanation of the Ferranti effect on an approximate basis can be advanced

by lumping the inductance and capacitance parameters of the line. In the figure 2, the
capacitance is lumped at the receiving end of the line.

Where,

= Length of line.

L = Inductance for unit length per phase

C = Capacitance for unit length per phase

̅
Now, ̅
( )

Since, C is small in comparison to L,

Hence, can be neglected in comparison to .

Thus, ̅ ̅( )
̅ ̅ ̅( ) ̅ ̅( )( )
̅[ ]

Hence, Magnitude of voltage rise =

Where is the velocity of propagation of the electromagnetic

√
wave along the line. From the above expression, it is clear that as the
length of the line increases, the voltage rise also increases.

Tuned Power Lines

̅ ( ̅ ) ̅ ( ̅ ) ̅
[ ] [ (̅ ) ] [ ] ------------(1)
̅ ( ̅ ) ̅
̅

̅
( ̅ ) ( )
( ̅ ) ( )
Equation (1) characterizes the performance of a long line. For an overhead, line shunt
conductance is always negligible and it is sufficiently accurate to neglect the line resistance r
as well. With these approximations,

̅ √( ̅ ̅ ) √( )( )

Now,

√( )( ) √ √
 √

( ̅ ) ( ) ( ) ( √ )

( ̅ ) ( ) ( √ )

Hence, equation (1) simplifies to

̅ ( √ ) ̅ ( √ ) ̅
[ ] * ( √ ) +[ ] ---------(2)
̅ ( √ ) ̅
̅

If √
Then,
̅ ( ) ̅ ( )( ) ̅
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̅ ( ) ̅ ( )( ) ̅

i.e. the receiving end voltage and current are numerically equal to the corresponding sending
end values, so there is no voltage drop on load. Such a line is called a tuned line. For 50 H z,
the length of the line for tuning is

( )
√

Now,

m = 6, 000 Km

( ) , put n=1, 2, 3,……

3000, 6000, 9000 Km,………..

It is too long a distance of transmission from point of view of cost and efficiency (the line
resistance was neglected in the above analysis). For a given line length and frequency, tuning
can be achieved by increasing L or C i.e. by adding series inductances or shunt capacitances
at several places along the line length. This method of tuning is impractical and
uneconomical for power frequency lines and is adopted for telephony where higher
frequencies are employed.

A method of tuning power lines which is being presently used, uses series capacitors
to cancel the effect of the line inductance and shunt inductors to neutralize line capacitance.
A long line is divided into several sections which are individually tuned. However, so far the
practical method of improving line regulation and power transfer capacity is to add series
capacitors to reduce series capacitors to reduce line inductance.

Equivalent circuit representation of a long line

For lengths more than 250 Km, the parameters are distributed and not lumped. Equivalent
and equivalent T circuits for such long lines may be derived. The nominal and nominal T
circuits do not represent the line exactly because they do not account for the parameters of the
lines being uniformly distributed.

Equivalent representation of a long line

Let us suppose that a long line is represented by a -circuit as shown in Figure (1).

̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ̅
Hence, [ ] * +[ ]
̅ ̅ (
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
)

But for a long line

̅ ( ̅ ) ̅ ( ̅ ) ̅
[ ] [ (̅ ) ][ ]
̅ ( ̅ ) ̅
̅
Hence,
̅ ̅
( ̅ )

̅ ̅ ( ̅ )
̅ ̅ (̅ )
̅ ( ) ̅

Now, ̅ ̅ ( ̅ )

̅
√̅ ( ̅ )

(√ ̅ )(√ ̅ )
( ̅ )
(√ ̅)(√ ̅ )

̅
( ̅ )
√( ̅)( ̅ )

(̅ )
̅
√( ̅)( ̅ )

(̅ )
̅̅̅
(̅ )

This means that to get the equivalent series impedance( ̅ ), the

(̅ )
lumped series impedance ( ̅ ) should be multiplied by (̅ )
.

̅ ̅
Now, ( ̅ )

̅
Or, ̅ ( ̅ ) ( ̅ )

Or,
̅ ̅
( ( )) ( ( ))
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( ))
 ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Or, ( ( )) ̅ ( ) ( )

̅ ̅ ̅
Or, ( ) ̅ ( )

̅ ̅
Or, ( ) ̅

̅
̅ ( )
Or, ̅

̅ ̅
√ ( )
̅

̅ (√ ̅)(√ ̅) ̅
Or, ( )
(√ ̅ )(√ ̅)

̅ ̅
̅
( )

̅ ̅
̅
⁄ ( )

( )
̅
̅
⁄̅ ( )
( )

̅
̅ ( )
( ) [ ̅ ]
( )

This means that to get the shunt arm of the equivalent , the shunt arm
̅
( )
of the nominal should be multiplied by[ ̅ ].
( )
 Equivalent representation of a long line
Let us suppose that a long line is represented by a -circuit as shown in Figure (2).

Hence,

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ( ) ̅
[ ] * +[ ]
̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ̅

Also for a long line,

̅ ( ̅ ) ̅ ( ̅ ) ̅
[ ] [ (̅ ) ][ ]
̅ ( ̅ ) ̅
̅

(̅ )
Hence, ̅ ̅

̅ ̅
( ̅ )

(̅ )
Now, ̅ ̅
 ̅
√ ( ̅ )

√̅ √̅
( ) ( )( ) ( ̅ )
√ ̅ √̅

( ̅)
( ̅ )
((√( ̅) ̅ ) )

̅
( ̅ )
(̅)

(̅ )
̅
(̅ )

This means to get the shunt branch of the equivalent T, the shunt
branch of the nominal T (lumped shunt admittance) should be
(̅ )
multiplied by the factor (̅ )
.

̅ ̅
Now, ( ̅ )

̅ ̅ ̅ (̅ ) ̅
( ( )) ( ( )) ̅
( ( ))
̅
( ( ))

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Or, ( ( )) ̅
( ) ( )

̅ ̅ ̅
Or, ( ) ̅
( )

̅ ̅
Or, ̅ ( )

̅ ̅ ̅
Or, √̅ ( )

√ ̅ √ ̅ ̅
( ) ( ̅) ( ) ( )
√̅ √
 ( ̅) ̅
( )
((√ ̅)(√ ̅ ))

̅
̅
⁄ ( )
( ̅) ( )

̅
̅ ( )
( ) ̅
( )

This means to get the series branch of equivalent circuit, the series of
the nominal T (lumped series impedance) should be multiplied by the
̅
( )
factor ̅ .
( )

̅ ̅
Since, the ratio of ( ) to ( ) and ( ̅ ) to( ̅ ) is almost
equal to unity for small values of ( ̅ ), the nominal circuits represent
the medium length lines quite accurately.
Constants of two networks in Tandem (series)
From network 1
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ------(1)

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ -------(2)

From network 2
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ------(3)

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ -------(4)

From equations (1), (2), (3) and (4)

̅ ̅ ( ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ) ̅ ( ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅)

( ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ )̅ ( ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ) ̅

̅ ̅( ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅) ̅ ( ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅)

( ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ )̅ ( ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ) ̅

Overall ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ constants are,

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

Constants of Two networks in parallel

From network (1),
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ -----------(1)
From network (2),
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ -----------(2)
Since the overall expression required is
̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅ -------------(3)

Where, ̅ ̅ ̅
Therefore, multiplying equations (1) and (2) by ̅ and ̅ respectively
and then adding, we get
(̅ ̅ )̅ ( ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ )̅ ̅ ̅ ( ̅ ̅ )
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Or, ̅ ( ̅ ̅
)̅ (̅ ̅
) ̅

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Hence, ̅ ̅ ̅
, ̅ ̅ ̅
------(4)

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ------(5)
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

Now, ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
( ̅ ̅)
Or, ̅ ̅
----------(6)

From equations (4), (5) and (6)

Power Flow through a transmission Line

Figure 1. shows a two bus system. The load is connected to Generator
through a transmission line whose constants are ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ .
Let ̅ ̅ ̅ ---------(1)
̅ ̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅

Generator voltage is ̅ ---------(2)

Load voltage is ̅ -------------(3)
Sending end complex power is
̅ ̅ ̅ -------------(4)
Receiving (Load) end power is
̅ ̅ ̅ ------------(5)
We know that,
̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅ -------------(6)

̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅ --------------(7)

From equation (6),

̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅̅
̅ -------(8)
̅ ̅ ̅

From equation (7),

̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅̅
̅̅ ̅* +
̅ ̅

̅ ̅̅
̅ ̅̅ ̅
̅ ̅

̅ (̅ ̅ ̅ ̅) ̅
̅
̅ ̅

̅ ̅
̅ ----------(9)
̅ ̅
Or, ̅

̅ ( )

̅ ( ) --------(10)

Now,
̅ ̅̅
̅
̅ ̅

( ) ( )

So, ̅ ( ) ( )--------(11)

Now,

̅ ̅ ̅ * ( ) ( )+

( ) ( ) --------(12)

̅ ̅ ̅ * ( ) +
( )( )
( ) ( ) --------(13)

In the above equations, ̅ and ̅ are the phase complex volt-

amperes, while and are expressed in per phase volts. If and
are expressed in KV (line to line), then the three phase receiving
end complex power is given by
̅ ( )
[ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
(√ )(√ )
 ̅ ( ) * ( ) ( ) + ----(14)

This indeed is the same as equation (12). The same result holds for ̅ .
Thus we see that equations (12) & (13) give the three phase MVA if
and are expressed in KVline.
Separating real and imaginary parts of equation (12),

( ) ( ) ------(15)

( ) ( ) --------(16)

Similarly,
( )( )
( ) ( ) -----(17)

( )( )
( ) ( ) ------(18)

It is clear from equation (15) that will be maximum when is equal

to .
( ) are fixed for a transmission line.
Hence,

( ) ( ) ----------(19)

The corresponding (at maximum ) is

( ) -----------(20)

Thus, the load must draw this much leading MVAR in order to
receive the maximum real power.
Problem 1:A three phase line delivers 10 MW (0.8 p.f. lagging) at a
voltage of 120 KV, 50 Hz at the receiving end. The length of the line
is 320 Km and the constants per phase per Km are: Resistance = 0.28
Ω, Inductive reactance = 0.433 Ω, Capacitive admittance =
mho, Conductance = 3.12 . Find the sending end voltage,
current and power factor.
Solution:

̅ ohm/phase/Km

̅ ( )
mho/phase/Km
[Conductance is to account for loss due to corona and leakage through
insulators.]

̅
̅ √̅ √

ohm/phase

̅ √( ̅)( ̅) √( )( )
per phase per Km

̅
per phase
( ̅ ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ̅ ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

̅ ̅ ( ̅ )
̅ ̅ ( ̅ ) ( )( )

(̅ ) ( )
̅
̅ ( )

Taking ̅ as reference
KV (line to line)

̅ Volts/phase
√

Load p.f. is 0.8 lagging.

, Hence, ( )

)( )
amp
(√ ) (√ )(

̅ A
Now,
̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅

( )( )
( )( )

Sending end voltage, (√ )( ) V=

128.83 KV
Now,
̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅

( )( )
( )( )
 A
Sending end p.f., ( ) (lag)

Sending end power, (√ )( )( )( )

(√ ) ( )( )( )W

= 11.72 MW
Problem 2: The generalized circuit constants of a transmission line are
̅

The load at the receiving end is 60 MVA, 50 Hz, 0.8 p.f. lagging. The
voltage at the supply end is 220 KV. Calculate the load voltage.

Solution: ̅
̅

Volts/phase
√

Let be line to line load voltage in Kilovolts.

Load power factor, (lag)
Hence,

(√ )( )( )( )

)
A
(√ )(

Taking ̅ as reference, ̅ Volts (line to line)

̅
(√ )( )

Now, ̅ ̅̅ ̅ ̅
Or,

( )( ) ( )(
√ (√ )( )

Or, ( )

Or, ( ) ( )
( )
Or,
( ) ( ) ( )
Equating real (imaginary) parts of L.H.S. to real (imaginary) parts of
R.H.S., we get,

-------(1)

-----(2)
Squaring equations (1) and (2) and then adding, we get
( ) [( ) ( ) ] ( )
( )

Or,

Or,

√( )
 √

Hence, KV (line to line)