APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

H
CFL3D has several turbulence model capabilities. Appendix H provides the derivation
for the advanced turbulence model equations. Be aware that while some variables in this
appendix are consistent with the rest of the manual (and are listed in the Nomenclature
section), many are introduced, defined, and used only in these sections and may or may
not appear in the Nomenclature listing. Also, for simplicity’s sake in this Appendix,
Re = Re L̃ .
R

H.1 Equations of Motion

Following Wilcox46, Favre19 averaging can be used with the Navier-Stokes equations to
account for turbulent fluctuations. The resulting equations of motion can be written using
the summation convention as follows. The full Navier-Stokes equations are shown here,
but in CFL3D, they are solved as the thin-layer approximation in pre-selected coordinate
direction(s). The ~ indicates a dimensional quantity.

∂ρ̃ ∂
------ + ( ρ̃ũ j ) = 0 (H-1)
∂t̃ ∂ x̃ j

∂ ∂ ∂ p̃ ∂τ̃
( ρ̃ũ i ) + ( ρ̃ũ j ũ i ) = – ------- + -------ji- (H-2)
∂ t̃ ∂ x̃ j ∂x̃ i ∂x̃ j

∂ ∂ ∂
( ρ̃Ẽ ) + ( ρ̃ũ j H̃ ) = [ ũ i τ̃ ij – q̇˜ j + ψ̃ j ] (H-3)
∂ t̃ ∂ x̃ j ∂ x̃ j

where

1 2 2 2
p̃ = ( γ – 1 ) ρ̃Ẽ – --ρ̃ ( ũ + ṽ + w̃ ) (H-4)
2

1 2 2 2
Ẽ = ẽ + -- ( ũ + ṽ + w̃ ) (H-5)
2

p̃
H̃ = Ẽ + --- (H-6)
ρ̃

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APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

1  µ̃
˜q̇ = – ---------- µ̃ T  ∂ã 2
- ----- + -------- --------
γ – 1  Pr Pr T ∂x̃ j
j (H-7)

2 γ p̃
ã = ------ (H-8)
ρ̃

Note that the kinetic energy of the fluctuating turbulent field k̃ is ignored in the defini-
1 2 2 2
tion of Ẽ in CFL3D (it is assumed that k̃ << ẽ + -- ( ũ + ṽ + w̃ ) ). Define
2

1 ∂ũ ∂ũ
S̃ ij = --  -------i + -------j
2  ∂x̃ j ∂x̃ i 
(H-9)
1 ∂ũ ∂ũ
W̃ ij = --  -------i – -------j
2  ∂x̃ j ∂x̃ i 

Also, the magnitude of vorticity is

Ω̃ = 2W̃ ij W̃ ij (H-10)

The shear stress terms τ̃ ij is composed of a laminar and a turbulent component as

L T
τ̃ ij = τ̃ ij + τ̃ ij (H-11)

where

1 ∂ũ k
τ̃ ij = 2µ̃  S̃ ij – -- -------- δ ij
L
 3 ∂x̃ k 
(H-12)

For all eddy-viscosity models in CFL3D, the following approximations are made:

1 ∂ũ k
τ̃ ij = 2µ̃ T  S̃ ij – -- -------- δ ij
T
 3 ∂x̃ k 
(H-13)

ψ̃ j = 0 (H-14)

˜ µ̃ T 1 ∂ũ k
Note that u i u j = – τ̃ ij ⁄ ρ̃ , or – 2 ------  S̃ ij – -- -------- δ ij in this case.
T
ρ̃  3 ∂x̃ k 

Currently, for the nonlinear models in CFL3D,

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 H.1 Equations of Motion

1 ∂ũ k
τ̃ ij = 2µ̃ T  S̃ ij – -- -------- δ ij – --ρ̃k̃δ ij +
T 2
 3 ∂x̃ k  3
(H-15)

k̃
2µ̃ T K 1 -- ( S̃ ik W̃ kj – W̃ ik S̃ kj ) –
ε̃

2µ̃ T K 2 --  S̃ ik S̃ kj – --S̃ kl S̃ lk δ ij

k̃ 1
ε̃  3 

µ̃ ∂k̃
ψ̃ j =  µ̃ + -----T- -------
 σ k ∂x̃ j
(H-16)

where k̃ ⁄ ε̃ is replaced by 1 ⁄ ω̃ when the k – ω equations rather than the k – ε equations

are employed.

The Navier-Stokes equations are nondimensionalized and written in generalized coor-

dinates, as described Appendix F. For eddy-viscosity models, the end result is that the tur-
bulent Navier-Stokes equations are identical to the laminar equations with the exception
that

µ̃ is replaced by µ̃ + µ̃ T

µ̃ µ̃ µ˜T
and ----- is replaced by ----- + --------
Pr Pr Pr T

where µ̃ T is the eddy viscosity value obtained by whatever turbulence model is used, and
Pr = 0.72 , Pr T = 0.9 . For the nonlinear models, both the above substitutions must be
made and the following additions as well. The term

– --ρ̃k̃δ ij + 2µ̃ T K 1 -- ( S̃ ik W̃ kj – W̃ ik S̃ kj ) – 2µ̃ T K 2 --  S̃ ik S̃ kj – --S̃ kl S̃ lk δ ij

2 k̃ k̃ 1
3 ε̃ ε̃  3 

is added to τ̃ ij in the momentum and energy equations and

∂  µ̃ ∂k̃
µ̃ + -----T- -------
∂ x̃ j  σ k ∂x̃ j

is added to the energy equation. These additions are made in subroutines gfluxv, hfluxv,
and ffluxv.

CFL3D User’s Manual 273

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

H.2 Nondimensionalizations

The turbulence equations are nondimensionalized by the same reference quantities as

the Navier-Stokes equations: ã ∞ , ρ̃ ∞ , µ̃ ∞ , and L̃ R = L̃ ⁄ L ref . The nondimensionalized
variables used with the turbulence models are:

k̃ µ̃ ∞ ω̃
k = -----
2
ω = -----------
-
2 P̃ k L̃ R
2
ã ∞ ρ̃ ∞ ã ∞ P k = -----------
-
2
µ̃ ∞ ã ∞
µ̃ ∞ ε̃ ρ̃
ε = -----------
- ρ = ------ 2
ρ̃ ∞ ã ∞
4 ρ̃ ∞ P̃ ω L̃ R
Pω = -----------
-
2
ũ p̃
p = -----------2- ρ̃ ∞ ã ∞
u = ----- (H-17)
ã ∞ ρ̃ ∞ ã ∞ 2
P̃ ε L̃ R
x̃ µ̃ Pε = -----------4-
x = ----- µ = ------ ρ̃ ∞ ã ∞
L̃ R µ̃ ∞
Ω̃L̃
τ̃ ij L̃ R t̃ ã Ω = ---------R-
τ ij = ------------ t = -------∞- ã ∞
µ̃ ∞ ã ∞ L̃ R

H.3 Zero-equation Models

H.3.1 Baldwin-Lomax Model

(ivisc = 2)

The Baldwin-Lomax10 model is not a field-equation model; it is an algebraic model.

Because it is the original model employed in CFL3D, its implementation differs in many
respects from the more advanced models. First of all, it does not use the minimum distance
function as its length scale, like the other models. Instead, it uses a directed distance from
the i = 1, j = 1, k = 1, i = idim, j = jdim, or k = kdim point along a constant index line.
For example, if the “body” is at k = 1, then the directed distance to a given point in the field
is the directed (normal) distance from k given to k = 1, keeping i and j fixed. See
Figure H-1(a). The directed distance is

d = rk ⋅ n – r0 ⋅ n (H-18)

where r k is the vector from the origin to k given and r 0 is the vector from the origin to the
k = 1 point. Note that if grid lines curve significantly d can become negative as in
Figure H-1(b). If the grid lines do this, CFL3D currently does not allow the distance to go

274 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.3.1 Baldwin-Lomax Model

negative. Instead, it computes d out to its maximum, then sets all distances thereafter to
that maximum value. However, if the grid behaves like the grid in Figure H-1(b), the Bald-
win-Lomax model, which is inherently dependent on the grid structure, is probably not a
good choice anyway. The use of any of the other field-equation models is recommended
instead.

fixed i, j line

k given n
n

d fixed i, j line
k = 1 k = 1

k given d < 0
(a) (b)

Figure H-1. Directed distance schematic.

In the current implementation in CFL3D, if the grid contains multiple blocks, Baldwin-
Lomax should only be implemented on blocks that contain bodies. This restriction applies
to the Baldwin-Lomax model only. It does not apply to the more general field-equation
models.

For the Baldwin-Lomax model,

µ T = µ T, inner y ≤ y crossover
(H-19)
µ T = µ T, outer y > y crossover

where y crossover is the location along the constant index line where µ T, inner exceeds
µ T, outer , marching away from the wall. The inner eddy viscosity is

µ T, inner = ρl Ω  --------
2 Re
 M ∞
(H-20)

where Ω is the magnitude of the vorticity and

+
l = y [ 1 – exp ( – y ⁄ 26 ) ] (H-21)

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APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

+
Since it now appears to be fairly widely accepted that the definition of y for the damp-
ing term needs to be modified in Baldwin-Lomax to give better answers when there are
large temperature gradients near the wall,

+ ρ̃τ̃ w
y = ------------ ỹ (H-22)
µ̃

is used rather than

+ ρ̃ w τ̃ w
y = ---------------- ỹ (H-23)
µ˜w

Nondimensionally, this becomes

1
--
ρτ w Re 2
y = ------------ y  --------
+
 M ∞
(H-24)
µ

The outer eddy viscosity is

µ T, outer = 0.0168 ( 1.6 )ρF wake F kleb  -----

Re
 M
(H-25)

where
2
F wake = min [ y max F max, 1.0 y max u dif ⁄ F max ]
(H-26)
+
F ( y ) = yΩ [ 1 – exp ( – y ⁄ 26 ) ]

+
In wakes, exp ( – y ⁄ 26 ) is set to zero. F max is the maximum value of F ( y ) that occurs in
a profile and y max is the value at which F max occurs. Also,

0.3 y 6 –1
F kleb = 1 + 5.5  ----------
 y max
(H-27)
2 2 2 2 2 2
u dif = ( u + v + w ) max – ( u + v + w ) min

The second term in u dif is taken to be zero, except in wakes. The region for the search for
F max is currently bound by

0.2η max + 1 < η < 0.8η max + 1 (H-28)

276 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.3.2 Baldwin-Lomax with Degani-Schiff Modification

where η , in this case, is the index direction away from the body.

H.3.2 Baldwin-Lomax with Degani-Schiff Modification

(ivisc = 3)

The Degani-Schiff16 modification to the Baldwin-Lomax model is an algorithmic

change which attempts to select the first occurrence of F max in a search from the wall out-
wards. This can be important when there is a vortex somewhere above the body surface. If
the code is not forced to select the F max in the boundary layer, it may choose a length scale
corresponding to the distance to the vortex, since often F can be larger in the vortex.

The test in CFL3D is very simple-minded and can often fail. However, it is quite diffi-
cult to find a test that works for all circumstances; so, for lack of anything better, the follow-
ing is used. Marching outward away from the body, F max is updated index by index. Then,
if

F < 0.9F max , (H-29)

the code stops searching.

H.4 One- and Two-equation Field-equation Models

All of the one- and two-equation model equations can be written in the general form

∂ ∂
( X ) + u j ( X ) = SP + SD + D (H-30)
∂t ∂x j

where S P is a “production” source term(s), S D is a “destruction” source term(s), and D

∂ ∂X
represents diffusion terms of the form ( ) ⋅ ------- . Note that S P and S D have been
∂x j ∂x j
grouped together rather loosely. In Spalart’s model in CFL3D, for example, part of Spalart’s
production term is grouped in S D for convenience. In Menter’s model in CFL3D, the
cross-derivative term is grouped in S D . In CFL3D, the S P terms are treated explicitly
while the S D terms are linearized and treated implicitly. This is Spalart’s “third strategy.”35

All of the field-equation models are solved uncoupled from the Navier-Stokes equa-
tions. All of the models are solved in essentially the same fashion. Details are given in
“Solution Method” on page 299 in the form of an example.

CFL3D User’s Manual 277

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

Also, all of the one- and two-equation models are based on incompressible turbulence
equations. No compressibility corrections have been added. Hence, for problems where the
2
turbulent Mach number, M T = 2k̃ ⁄ ã , is high, these turbulence models may not be
applicable. Note that for most subsonic through low supersonic aerodynamic applications,
the incompressible forms of the turbulence models are generally expected to be valid.

All of the field equation models except for Wilcox k – ω make use of the minimum dis-
tance function, or the distance to the nearest wall, smin. This distance differs from the
directed distance used by the Baldwin-Lomax model in that it does not follow grid lines and
can be computed across zone boundaries. Hence, it is more easily applicable to multiple
zone applications. The minimum distance function represents the distance to the nearest
viscous wall and takes into account grid skewness when computing the nearest wall-point
location (in subroutine findmin_new). The exception is the Baldwin-Barth model which
uses a minimum distance algorithm (subroutine findmin) that does not take grid skew-
ness into account. (The reason for this exception is that the Baldwin-Barth model requires
other variables not currently implemented in subroutine findmin_new.)

H.4.1 Baldwin-Barth Model

(ivisc = 4)

The Baldwin-Barth9 model solves a single field equation for a turbulent Reynolds num-
ber term R :

∂R ∂R M∞ ν T ∂ 2 R M ∞ 1 ∂  ∂R 
------ + u j ------
- = ( C ε f 2 – C ε ) RP + -------
- ν + ----- -------2- – -------- ----- ν -------
Re  σ ε ∂x Re σ ε ∂ x j  T ∂x j
(H-31)
∂t ∂x j 2 1
j

where

1 Cµ
----- = ( C ε – C ε ) ---------
- (H-32)
σε 2 1
κ
2

ν T = C µ RD 1 D 2 (H-33)

 y+ 
D 1 = 1 – exp  – -----+- (H-34)
 A 

 y+ 
D 2 = 1 – exp  – -----+- (H-35)
 A2 

278 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.4.2 Spalart-Allmaras Model

Cε  Cε  1 
f 2 = -------1 +  1 – -------1  --------+ + D 1 D 2  D 1 D 2 +
Cε   κ y 
(H-36)
Cε  
2 2

+
y 1  y+  1  y+  
---------------- -----+- exp  – ------ D 2 + -----+- exp  – ------ D 1 
D1 D2 A  A  +
A2  A2  +


µ T = ρν T (H-37)

κ = 0.41 C ε = 1.2 C ε = 2.0

1 2
(H-38)
C µ = 0.09 + +
A2 = 10
A = 26

The production term P is given by

∂u k 2
P = 2ν T S ij S ij – --ν T  --------
2
3  ∂x k
(H-39)

but is approximated as
2
P ≅ νT Ω (H-40)

Hence, using the general form in Equation (H-30) with X = R ,

S P ≅ ( C ε f 2 – C ε ) C µ D 1 D 2 ΩR (H-41)
2 1

M∞ ν ∂2 R M ∞ 1 ∂ ∂R
D = --------  ν + ----T- -------2- – -------- -----  ν T -------
   ∂x j
(H-42)
Re σ ε ∂x Re σ ε ∂ x j
j

+
Since the Baldwin-Barth model requires y (rather than just the minimum distance to
the wall), additional information about the nearest wall point needs to be stored as well as
the minimum distance function d . For simplicity, it is currently assumed that in the
+
regions where y has an effect, these additional wall values are in the same grid zone as the
point in question.

H.4.2 Spalart-Allmaras Model

(ivisc = 5)

The Spalart-Allmaras34 model solves a single field equation for a variable ν̂ related to
the eddy viscosity through

CFL3D User’s Manual 279

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

µ T = ρν̂ f v (H-43)
1

where
3
χ
f v = ------------------
3 3
(H-44)
χ + Cv
1
1

ν̂
χ ≡ -- (H-45)
ν

The equation is

∂ν̂ ∂ν̂
------ + u j ------- = C b [ 1 – f t ]Ων̂ (H-46)
∂t ∂x j 1 2

M∞  ν̂ 2
+ --------  C b [ ( 1 – f t ) f v + f t ] ----2- – C w f w  --
1
Re  1  
2 2 2
κ 1
 d
M ∞ C b2 ∂ 2 ν̂
– -------- -------ν̂ -------2-
Re σ ∂x
j
M∞ 1 ∂ ∂ν̂
+ -------- --- ( ν + ( 1 + C b )ν̂ ) -------
Re σ ∂ x j 2 ∂x j

(Note that Spalart’s trip function is not used.) Also,

2
f t = C t exp ( – C t χ ) (H-47)
2 3 4

d = distance to the closest wall = minimum distance function (H-48)

1 1
6 -- –6 – 6 – -6-
1+ Cw 6 g + Cw
3 3
f w = g ------------------
6 6
- = ---------------------
–6
- (H-49)
g + Cw 1 + Cw
3 3

6
g = r + Cw (r – r ) (H-50)
2

ν̂
r = --------------------------- (H-51)
Ŝ  -------- κ d
Re 2 2
 M ∞

where

280 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.4.3 Wilcox k-Omega Model

ν̂ f v
Ŝ = Ω + ------------------------
2
(H-52)
 -------- κ 2 d 2
Re
 M ∞

f v = no longer used (H-53)

3

χ
f v = 1 – ------------------- (H-54)
2 1+χfv
1

CFL3D currently uses Spalart’s Version Ia34. The fv3 term was employed as a smooth fix to
prevent Ŝ from going negative prior to 12/97, but was removed after an error was discov-
ered ( Ŝ and fv2 were also different). The constants are

2
C b = 0.1355 σ = -- C b = 0.622 κ = 0.41
1 3 2
C w = 0.3
C w = 2.0 C t = 1.2 C t = 0.5 2
3 C v = 7.1 3 4
1 (H-55)

Cb (1 + Cb )
C w = ------2-1 + --------------------
2
(note typo in ref. 34)
1
κ σ

For the general form in Equation (H-30):

X = ν̂ (H-56)

S P = C b [ 1 – f t ]Ων̂ (H-57)
1 2

M∞  ν̂ 2
S D = --------  C b [ ( 1 – f t ) f v + f t ] ----2- – C w f w  --
1
 
(H-58)
Re  1 2 2 2
κ 1
 d

M ∞ C b2 ∂ 2 ν̂ M ∞ 1 ∂ ∂ν̂
D = – - -------ν̂ -------2- + -------- ---
------- ( ν + ( 1 + C b )ν̂ ) ------- (H-59)
Re σ ∂x Re σ ∂ x j 2 ∂x j
j

Note that in CFL3D, the S P and S D terms are grouped differently than Spalart’s. Part of
Spalart’s production term is grouped into S D because it has the common factor M ∞ ⁄ Re ,
like the other destruction terms.

H.4.3 Wilcox k-Omega Model

(ivisc = 6)

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APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

For Wilcox’s46 model,

∂k ∂k M∞ 1 ∂  µ ∂k M ∞
----- + u j ------- = --- P k  -------- – β′kω  -------- + --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
1 Re
ρ  Re   M ∞ ρ ∂ x j  σ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-60)
∂t ∂x j

∂ω ∂ω M∞ 1 ∂  µ ∂ω M ∞
------ + u j ------- = --- P ω  -------- – βω  -------- + --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
1 2 Re
ρ  Re   M ∞ ρ ∂ x j  σ ω ∂x j  Re 
(H-61)
∂t ∂x j

In this model, C µ is incorporated into the definition of ω , so

ρk
µ T = ------ (H-62)
ω

The production terms are approximated by

2
Pk = µT Ω (H-63)

2
P ω = γρΩ (H-64)

The constants are

2
β κ
γ = ------ – ----------------- β′ = C µ = 0.09
Cµ σ C
ω µ
β = 0.075 (H-65)
σ k = 1 ⁄ 0.5
κ = 0.41
σ ω = 1 ⁄ 0.5

The minimum distance function d is not required by this model. However, at the present
time it is still computed and stored by CFL3D. For the general form in Equation (H-30),

Xk = k (H-66)

2 M∞
S P, k = --- µ T Ω  --------
1
 Re 
(H-67)
ρ

S D, k = – β′kω  --------
Re
 M ∞
(H-68)

1 ∂  µ ∂k M ∞
D k = --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
ρ∂x j  σ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-69)

and

282 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.4.4 Menter’s k-Omega SST Model

Xω = ω (H-70)

2 M∞
S P, ω = γ Ω  --------
 Re 
(H-71)

S D, ω = – βω  --------
2 Re
 M ∞
(H-72)

1 ∂  µ ∂ω M ∞
D ω = --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
ρ∂x j  σ ω ∂x j  Re 
(H-73)

H.4.4 Menter’s k-Omega SST Model

(ivisc = 7)

Menter’s k-ω model is assessed in reference 27. Note that there are two corrections to
this reference. Equation (1) should be

σµ t = µ + σµ t
(H-74)
σ∗ µ t = µ + σ∗ µ t

and Equation (17) should be

Γ = max(2Γ 3, Γ 1 ) (H-75)

The two equations for this model are

∂k ∂k M∞ 1 ∂  µ ∂k M ∞
----- + u j ------- = --- P k  -------- – β′kω  -------- + --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
1 Re
ρ  Re   M ∞ ρ ∂ x j  σ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-76)
∂t ∂x j

∂ω ∂ω M∞ 1 ∂  µ ∂ω M ∞
------ + u j ------- = --- P ω  -------- – βω  -------- + --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
1 2 Re
ρ  Re   M ∞ ρ ∂ x j  σ ω ∂x j  Re 
(H-77)
∂t ∂x j
1 1 ∂k ∂ω M ∞
+ 2 ( 1 – F 1 ) -------- --- ------- -------  --------
σ ω ω ∂x j ∂x j  Re 
2

In this model, C µ is incorporated into the definition of ω . The eddy viscosity is given by

ρk a 1 ρk Re
µ T = min ------, -----------  -----
ω ΩF 2  M 
(H-78)

The production terms are approximated by

CFL3D User’s Manual 283

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

2
Pk = µT Ω (H-79)

2
P ω = γρΩ (H-80)

The constants are calculated from φ = F 1 φ 1 + ( 1 – F 1 )φ 2 , where the φ ’s are the con-
stants:

β κ
2 β2 κ
2
γ 1 = -----1- – ------------------ γ 2 = ------ – ------------------
Cµ σ C Cµ σ C
ω1 µ ω2 µ

σ k = 1 ⁄ 0.85 σ k = 1.0
1 2

σ ω = 1 ⁄ 0.5 σ ω = 1 ⁄ 0.856 (H-81)

1 2

β 1 = 0.075 β 2 = 0.0828
κ = 0.41 a 1 = 0.31
β′ = C µ = 0.09
4
F 1 = tanh ( Γ )
Γ = min [ max ( Γ 1, Γ 3 ), Γ 2 ]

500ν  M ∞ 2 k M∞
Γ 3 = -------------  --------
4ρk
Γ 1 = ----------
2 
- -------- Γ 2 = -----------------------------------
-
 C µ ωd  Re 
d ω Re
2
d σ ω ( CD k – ω )
2 (H-82)
2 ∂k ∂ω
CD k – ω = max  ρ ------------ ------- -------, 1 ×10 
– 20
 σ ω ω ∂x j ∂x j 
2

2
F 2 = tanh ( Π )
Π = max ( 2Γ 3, Γ 1 )

For the general form in Equation (H-30),

Xk = k (H-83)

2 M∞
S P, k = --- µ T Ω  --------
1
 Re 
(H-84)
ρ

S D, k = – β′kω  --------
Re
 M ∞
(H-85)

1 ∂  µ ∂k M ∞
D k = --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
ρ∂x j  σ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-86)

284 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.4.5 Abid k-Epsilon Model

and

Xω = ω (H-87)

2 M∞
S P, ω = γ Ω  --------
 Re 
(H-88)

1 ∂k ∂ω M ∞
S D, ω = – βω  -------- + 2 ( 1 – F 1 )σ ω --- ------- -------  --------
2 Re
 M ∞ 2 ω ∂x ∂x  Re 
(H-89)
j j

1 ∂  µ ∂ω M ∞
D ω = --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
 σ ω ∂x j  Re 
(H-90)
ρ∂x j

H.4.5 Abid k-Epsilon Model

(ivisc = 10)

For the Abid2 k-ε model, the equations are

∂k ∂k M∞ 1 ∂  µ ∂k M ∞
----- + u j ------- = --- P k  -------- – ε  -------- + --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
1 Re
ρ  Re   M ∞ ρ ∂ x j  σ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-91)
∂t ∂x j

∂ε ∂ε 1  M ∞ ε
2
1 ∂  µ ∂ε M ∞
– C ε - f 2  -------- + --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
Re
----- + u j ------
- --
-
= Pε -------
- ---
ρ  Re   M ∞ ρ ∂ x j  σ ε  ∂x j  Re 
(H-92)
∂t ∂x j 2 k

2
ρk
µ T = C µ f µ -------- (H-93)
ε

The production terms are approximated by

2
Pk = µT Ω
ε 2
(H-94)
P ε = C ε --µ T Ω
1k

The constants are

C ε = 1.45
1
σ k = 1.0
C ε = 1.83 σ ε = 1.4 (H-95)
2

C µ = 0.09

The damping functions are given by

CFL3D User’s Manual 285

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

– 0.75
f µ = [ 1 + 4 ( Re τ ) ] tanh ( 0.008Re k )
(H-96)
Re
f2 = 1 – exp  – -------k-
 12 

where
2
ρk
Re τ = --------
µε
(H-97)
ρ kd Re
Re k = -------------  -----
µ  M

where d is the distance to the nearest wall. For the general form in Equation (H-30),

Xk = k (H-98)

2 M∞
S P, k = --- µ T Ω  --------
1
 Re 
(H-99)
ρ

S D, k = – ε  --------
Re
 M ∞
(H-100)

1 ∂  µ ∂k M ∞
D k = --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
ρ∂x j  σ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-101)

and

Xε = ε (H-102)

ε 2 M∞
S P, ε = --- C ε --µ T Ω  --------
1
 Re 
(H-103)
ρ 1k
2
ε
= – C ε ---- f 2  --------
Re
S D, ε
 M ∞
(H-104)
2 k

1 ∂  µ ∂ε M ∞
D ε = --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
ρ∂x j  σ ε  ∂x j  Re 
(H-105)

H.4.6 EASM Gatski-Speziale k-Omega Model

(ivisc = 8 and 12)

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 H.4.6 EASM Gatski-Speziale k-Omega Model

EASM stands for Explicit Algebraic Stress Model.3 Ivisc = 8 is the “linear” k – ω ver-
sion, treated as an eddy viscosity model, whereas ivisc = 12 is the fully nonlinear k – ω
version. The two versions obtain µ T with identical methods. However, the nonlinear
model includes nonlinear terms added to the Navier-Stokes equations, whereas the linear
model does not. (Its effect is felt only through the µ T term.)

The k – ω equations are of the same form as in the Wilcox k – ω model (Equation (H-
60) and Equation (H-61)). However, C µ is not incorporated into the definition of ω (it is
now a variable coefficient), so,

k
µ T = C µ ρ --- (H-106)
ω

The constants are different as well:

σ k = 1.4

2 σ ω = 2.2
κ
γ = β – ------------------- β′ = 1.0 (H-107)
σ ω C µ∗
β = 0.83
κ = 0.41

The production terms are

T ∂u i
P k = τ ij -------
∂x j
(H-108)
ω T ∂u i
Pω = γ ---τ ij -------
k ∂x j

T
where τ ij is given (dimensionally) in Equation (H-15). The variable C µ and the coeffi-
cients K 1 and K 2 in Equation (H-15) are determined as follows:

2 6 6
3 ( 1 + η ) + 0.2 ( η + ζ )
2 2 2 2 6
-α
C µ = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
6 1
(H-109)
3 + η + 6ζ η + 6ζ + η + ζ
1
α2 -- M
( S S )  --------
2 ∞
η = ----
-
ω ij ij  Re 
(H-110)

1
α3 -- M
ζ = ----- ( W ij W ij )  --------
2 ∞
 Re 
(H-111)
ω

CFL3D User’s Manual 287

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

K 1 = α3
(H-112)
K 2 = 2α 2

where

α 1 =  -- – C 2 --
4 g
3 2
g
α 2 = ( 2 – C 3 ) --
2
(H-113)
g
α 3 = ( 2 – C 4 ) --
2
C –1
g =  -----1 + C 5 – 1
2 

(Note that η, ζ , and α are just used here to denote terms in the equations and do not
reflect the definitions in the Nomenclature list.) Currently, the pressure-strain correlation
is modeled with the Speziale-Sarkar-Gatski (SSG) correlation, which uses:

C 1 = 6.8 C 3 = 1.25 C 5 = 1.88

(H-114)
C 2 = 0.36 C 4 = 0.4 C µ∗ = 0.081

T
To improve convergence, the µ T terms in τ ij multiplying the nonlinear terms

1
S ik W kj – W ik S kj and S ik S kj – --S S lk δ ij
3 kl

are replaced by

k
µ T ′ = C µ ′ρ --- (H-115)
ω

where
2 –8 6 6
3 ( 1 + η ) + 0.2 × 10 ( η + ζ )
2 2 2 2 6
-α
C µ ′ = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
6 1
(H-116)
3 + η + 6ζ η + 6ζ + η + ζ

Also, the µ T terms in the D k and D ω diffusion terms are replaced by

k
µ T∗ = C µ∗ ρ --- (H-117)
ω

288 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.4.7 EASM Gatski-Speziale k-Epsilon Model

The minimum distance function d is not required by this model. However, at the present
time it is still computed and stored by CFL3D. For the general form in Equation (H-30),

Xk = k (H-118)

1 T ∂u i M ∞
S P, k = --- τ ij -------  --------
ρ ∂x j  Re 
(H-119)

S D, k = – β′kω  --------
Re
 M ∞
(H-120)

1 ∂  µ T∗ ∂k M ∞
D k = ---  µ + -------- -------  -------- (H-121)
ρ∂x j  σ k  ∂x j Re

and

Xω = ω (H-122)

1 ω T ∂u i M ∞
S P, ω = --- γ ---τ ij -------  --------
ρ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-123)

S D, ω = – βω  --------
2 Re
 M ∞
(H-124)

1 ∂  µ T∗ ∂ω M ∞
D ω = ---  µ + -------- -------  -------- (H-125)
ρ∂x j  σ ω  ∂x j Re

H.4.7 EASM Gatski-Speziale k-Epsilon Model

(ivisc = 11)

The k – ε version of the Gatski-Speziale EASM model3 is only implemented as a non-

linear model. Its equations are identical to those of the Abid k – ε model (Equation (H-91)
and Equation (H-92)), with
2
ρk
µ T = C µ -------- (H-126)
ε

(There is no f µ term.) The constants are

CFL3D User’s Manual 289

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

C ε = 1.83
2

κ
2
σ k = 1.0
C ε = C ε – ------------------ (H-127)
σ ε C µ∗ σ ε = 1.3
1 2

κ = 0.41

The production terms are

T ∂u i
P k = τ ij -------
∂x j
(H-128)
ε T ∂u i
P ε = C ε --τ ij -------
1k ∂x j

The variable C µ , and all constants are identical to those given for the EASM k – ω model
in “EASM Gatski-Speziale k-Omega Model” on page 286, except that ω is replaced by
ε ⁄ k . The damping functions are given by

Re
f 2 = 1 – exp  – -------k-
 12 
(H-129)

where

ρ kd Re
Re k = -------------  --------
µ  M ∞
(H-130)

T
The µ T terms in τ ij multiplying the nonlinear terms are replaced in exactly the same way
as for the EASM k – ω model. Also, the µ T terms in the D k and D ε diffusion terms are
replaced by
2
ρk
µ T∗ = C µ∗ -------- (H-131)
ε

For the general form in Equation (H-30),

Xk = k (H-132)

1 T ∂u i M ∞
S P, k = --- τ ij -------  --------
ρ ∂x j  Re 
(H-133)

S D, k = – ε  --------
Re
 M ∞
(H-134)

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 H.4.8 EASM Girimaji k-Epsilon Model

1 ∂  µ T∗ ∂k M ∞
D k = ---  µ + -------- -------  -------- (H-135)
ρ∂x j  σ k  ∂x j Re

and

Xε = ε (H-136)

ε T ∂u i M ∞
S P, ε = --- C ε --τ ij -------  --------
1
ρ 1 k ∂x j  Re 
(H-137)

2
ε
= – C ε ---- f 2  --------
Re
S D, ε
 M ∞
(H-138)
2 k

1 ∂  µ T∗ ∂ε M ∞
D ε = ---  µ + -------- -------  -------- (H-139)
ρ∂x j  σ ε  ∂x j Re

H.4.8 EASM Girimaji k-Epsilon Model

(ivisc = 9 and 13)

The Girimaji21 version of the EASM k – ε model is implemented both as a “linear”

(eddy-viscosity) (ivisc = 9) and “nonlinear” (ivisc = 13) version. The k – ε equations are

∂k ∂k M∞ 1 ∂  µ ∂k M ∞
----- + u j ------- = --- P k  -------- – ε  -------- + --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
1 Re
ρ  Re   M ∞ ρ ∂ x j  σ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-140)
∂t ∂x j

∂ε ∂ε 1  M ∞
2
ε  Re  1 ∂  µ ∂ε M ∞
----- + u j ------
- --
-
= Pε -------
- – C ε - -------- + ---
--- µ + -----T- -------  --------
ρ  Re  2 k M  ρ∂x j  σ ε  ∂x j  Re 
(H-141)
∂t ∂x j ∞
ε 2µ ∂ k 2 M ∞
+ C ε -- ------  ---------  --------
2 k ρ  ∂x   Re 
j

2
ρk
µ T = – G 1 f µ -------- (H-142)
ε

2
The extra ( ∂ k ⁄ ∂x j ) term in the ε equation was added to replace the f 2 damping func-
2 2
tion term on the ε ⁄ k term, which is needed because ε ⁄ k → ∞ at the wall. The con-
stants are

CFL3D User’s Manual 291

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

C ε = 1.44
1
σ k = 1.0
(H-143)
C ε = 1.83 σ ε = 1.3
2

The production terms are approximated by

T ∂u i
P k = τ ij -------
∂x j
(H-144)
ε T ∂u i
P ε = C ε --τ ij -------
1k ∂x j

The damping functions f µ is

f µ = tanh 0.015 -------------  --------

kdρ Re
µ  M ∞
(H-145)

T
τ ij is given (dimensionally) in Equation (H-15). However, K 1 and K 2 in that equation are
now given by

G
K 1 = -----2-
G1
(H-146)
G
K 2 = – -----3-
G1

and
0
L1 L2
for η1 = 0 G 1 = --------------------------------------
-
0 2 2
( L 1 ) + 2η 2 ( L 4 )
0
1 L1 L2
for L1 = 0 G 1 = -----------------------------------------------------------------
-
0 2 2 2 2
( L 1 ) + --η 1 ( L 3 ) + 2η 2 ( L 4 )
3
1 1 (H-147)
-- --
3 3
G 1 = – -- +  – --- + D +  – -- – D
p b b
for D>0
3  2   2 

θ
G 1 = – -- + 2 – -- cos  --
p a
for D < 0, b < 0
3 3  3

θ 2π
G 1 = – -- + 2 – -- cos  -- + ------
p a
for D < 0, b > 0
3 3  3 3

292 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.4.8 EASM Girimaji k-Epsilon Model

where

k 2 M∞ 2
η 1 =  -- S ij S ij  --------
 ε  Re 
(H-148)
k 2 M∞ 2
η 2 =  -- W ij W ij  --------
 ε  Re 

0 0
2L 1 L1 L2
p = – ----------
-
1
r = – ----------------- (H-149)
1 2
η1 L1 ( η1 L1 )

1 0 2 1 2 2 2
q = -----------------2 ( L 1 ) + η 1 L 1 L 2 – --η 1 ( L 3 ) + 2η 2 ( L 4 ) (H-150)
1 3
( η1 L1 )

2
a =  q – -----
p 1 3
b = ----- ( 2p – 9pq + 27r )
 3 27
2 3 (H-151)
b a –b ⁄ 2
D = ----- + ----- cos θ = --------------------
4 27 3
– a ⁄ 27

–L4 G1 +2L 3 G 1
G 2 = ---------------------------
0 1
- G 3 = ---------------------------
0 1
- (H-152)
L1 – η1 L1 G1 L1 – η1 L1 G1

C 2
L 2 = -----2 – --
0 2 3
0 C
L1 = -----1 – 1 C
2 L 3 = -----3 – 1 (H-153)
1 1
2
L1 = C 1 + 2 C
L 4 = -----4 – 1
2

0 C 2 = 0.36
C 1 = 3.4
C 3 = 1.25 (H-154)
1
C1 = 1.8 C 4 = 0.4

For the general form in Equation (H-30),

Xk = k (H-155)

1 T ∂u i M ∞
S P, k = --- τ ij -------  --------
ρ ∂x j  Re 
(H-156)

CFL3D User’s Manual 293

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

S D, k = – ε  --------
Re
 M ∞
(H-157)

1 ∂  µ ∂k M ∞
D k = --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
ρ∂x j  σ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-158)

and

Xε = ε (H-159)

ε T ∂u i M ∞ ε 2µ ∂ k 2 M ∞
S P, ε = --- C ε --τ ij -------  -------- + C ε -- ------  ---------  --------
1
ρ 1 k ∂x j  Re  2 k ρ  ∂x   Re 
(H-160)
j

2
ε Re
S D, ε = – C ε ----  --------
2 k M 
(H-161)
∞

1 ∂  µ ∂ε M ∞
D ε = --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
ρ∂x j  σ ε  ∂x j  Re 
(H-162)

H.5 Generalized Coordinate Form

For the transformation from Cartesian coordinates to generalized coordinates, for

example,

∂k ∂k ∂k ∂k
u j ------- = U ----- + V ------ + W ----- (H-163)
∂x j ∂ξ ∂η ∂ζ

where

U = ξx u + ξ y v + ξz w + ξt
V = ηx u + η y v + ηz w + ηt (H-164)

W = ζx u + ζ y v + ζz w + ζt

In the diffusion-type terms, cross-derivative terms are neglected. For example,

294 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.6 Initial Conditions

∂  ∂k  ∂ ∂k ∂ ∂k ∂ ∂k
µ ------- ≅ ξ x  ξ x µ ----- + ξ y  ξ y µ ----- + ξ z  ξ z µ -----
∂ x j  ∂x j ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
(H-165)

∂ ∂k ∂ ∂k ∂ ∂k
+ η x  η x µ ------ + η y  η y µ ------ + η z  η z µ ------
∂η ∂η ∂η ∂η ∂η ∂η
∂ ∂k ∂ ∂k ∂ ∂k
+ ζx ζ x µ ----- + ζ y  ζ y µ ----- + ζ z  ζ z µ -----
∂ζ ∂ζ ∂ζ ∂ζ ∂ζ ∂ζ

An example of the discretization is given for the first term on the right-hand side of Equa-
tion (H-165):

∂ ∂k ∂k ∂k
ξx ξ x µ ----- → ξ x ξ x µ 1  ----- 1 – ξ x ξ x µ 1  ----- 1
     
(H-166)
∂ξ ∂ξ i
i + -- i + -- ∂ξ i + --
1 i
i – -- i – -- ∂ξ i – --
1
2 2 2 2 2 2

where

 ∂k
----- = ki + 1 – ki
∂k
 ----- = ki – ki – 1
 ∂ξ i + 1--  ∂ξ i – 1--
(H-167)
2 2

The locations of the indices are shown in Figure H-2.

i–1 i+1

i
1 1
i – -- i + --
2 2

Figure H-2. Definition of left and right states for generalized coordinate transformation.

H.6 Initial Conditions

For the Baldwin-Barth and Spalart-Allmaras models, the levels of the turbulence quan-
tities R and ν̂ are initialized at their free-stream levels everywhere in the flow field. For the
two-equation models, it helps the solution start-up phase to initialize the k and ω (or k
and ε ) values to crude profiles that simulate typical profiles in a boundary layer. Currently,
for k – ω :

CFL3D User’s Manual 295

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

2
k IC = max ( k ∞, – C 1 d + C 2 d )
(H-168)
C µ k IC
ω IC = max  – 12444d + 0.54, --------------
 v3d 

where d is the distance to the nearest wall, scaled by Re/5.e6; and, for EASM models,
C µ = 0.09 ; otherwise, C µ = 1.0 . Also,

100k IC
v3d = max ---------------, 0.009
t max
2
t max = – C 1 S max + C 2 S max
(H-169)
C2
S max = --------
2C 1
C 1 = 45.8 C 2 = 1.68

For k – ε :

k IC = min { zk4, max [ zk1, min ( zk2, zk3 ) ] } (H-170)

zk1 = k ∞
– 471d + 0.47
zk2 = 10
(H-171)
– 37.5d – 3.7
zk3 = 10
zk4 = 6.7d

ε IC = min { ep4, max [ ep1, min ( ep2, ep3 ) ] } (H-172)

ep1 = ε ∞
– 555d – 6
ep2 = 10
(H-173)
– 280d – 9.2
ep3 = 10
20 13333d – 9.8
ep4 = min ( 1 ×10 , 10 )

H.7 Boundary Conditions

H.7.1 Free-stream Levels

For the Baldwin-Barth model,

296 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.7.2 Boundary Conditions at Solid Walls

R ∞ = 0.1 (H-174)

For the Spalart-Allmaras model,

ν̂ ∞ = 1.341946 (H-175)

For the standard k – ω or Menter’s SST models ( C µ is incorporated into the definition
of ω ),

–9
k ∞ = 9 × 10
(H-176)
–6
ω ∞ = 1 × 10

For the EASM ( k – ω ) models,

–9
k ∞ = 9 × 10
(H-177)
–8
ω ∞ = 9 × 10

For the k – ε models,

–9
k ∞ = 1 × 10
(H-178)
– 17
ε ∞ = 1 × 10

The end result for all models is

µ T, ∞ ≅ 0.009 (H-179)

–8 – 17
in the free stream. Note that ω ∞ = 9 × 10 and ε ∞ = 1 × 10 for the EASM models
are based on C µ = 0.09 , which is only approximate since C µ is variable. Also note that
for two-equation models in the code, ε (or ω ) is represented by the 1st turbulence variable
(e.g., tur10), and k by the 2nd (e.g., tur20).

H.7.2 Boundary Conditions at Solid Walls

With the parameters known at the cell-centers near the solid wall boundary (see the
wall region schematic in Figure H-3), the following boundary conditions are applied.

For Baldwin-Barth,

Rw = 0 (H-180)

CFL3D User’s Manual 297

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

1
d1

Figure H-3. Parameter locations at wall boundary.

For Spalart-Allmaras,

ν̂ = 0 (H-181)

For the k – ω models,

kw = 0 (H-182)

60µ 1 M ∞ 2
ω w = --------------------2-  --------
 
(H-183)
ρ 1 β ( d 1 ) Re

where

β = 0.83 for the EASM k – ω models and

β = 0.075 otherwise.

For the k- ε models,

kw = 0 (H-184)

2µ 1  ∂ k 2  M ∞ 2
εw = -------- --------- --------
ρ 1  ∂n  w  Re 
(H-185)

where n is the direction normal to the wall.

Note that the actual wall boundary conditions for the turbulence quantities (unlike the
primitive variables) are applied at ghost cells. Hence,

χ BC = 2χ w – χ 1 (H-186)

where χ represents R, ν̂, k, ω , or ε .

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 H.8 Solution Method

Version 4.1 of CFL3D applied the above boundary condition for ω (Equation (H-183))
at the ghost cell center rather than at the wall. This is not correct, but supposedly any wall
boundary condition for ω that is bigger by some factor than the “analytical” value
2
6µ 1 ⁄ ( ρβ y ) gives basically the same result. (See reference 26.) The current version of
CFL3D (Version 5.0) obtains the ghost cell value using linear interpolation from ω w and
ω 1 (or ε w and ε 1 ).

H.8 Solution Method

The one or two equations are solved, decoupled, using implicit approximate factoriza-
tion (AF). The S P terms are treated explicitly, lagged in time while the S D and D terms are
treated implicitly (they are linearized and a term is brought to the left-hand-side of the
equations). This procedure is described by Spalart and Allmaras35 (strategy #3). The advec-
tive terms are discretized using first-order upwinding. Treating the destruction terms
implicitly helps increase the diagonal dominance of the left-hand-side matrix. Most of the
S D terms are linearized in a simplified fashion by assuming no coupling between the vari-
ables. For example,

(n + 1) (n) ∂
β′kω ≅ β′kω + ( β′kω )∆k (H-187)
∂k
(n)
≅ β′kω + β′ω∆k

For the S D terms in the k – ε equations, however, a more sophisticated approach was
taken. When linearizing, the k and ε variables are assumed to be coupled, with the eddy
viscosity µ T assumed to be fixed. For example, in the k equation, S D = – ε ( Re ⁄ M ∞ ) is
linearized as follows:

(n + 1) (n) ∂
ε ≅ε + ( ε )∆k (H-188)
∂k
2
(n) ∂  C µ f µ ρk 
≅ε +  --------------------- ∆k
∂ k  µT 

(n) C µ f µ ρk
≅ε + 2 ------------------- ∆k
µT

(n) ε
≅ε + 2 --∆k
k

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APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

2
ε
The S D = – C ε ---- f 2 ( Re ⁄ M ∞ ) term in the ε equation is treated similarly, for consis-
2 k

tency:

2(n + 1) 2(n) 2
ε ε ∂ ε 
---- ≅ ---- + ---- ∆ε
∂ε k 
(H-189)
k k
1 3
2(n) --
µ f µ ρ 2
∂ 2 --
ε C
≅ ---- + --------------- ε ∆ε
k ∂ε  µT 
1
2(n) --
ε 3 C µ f µ ρε 2
≅ ---- + --  ------------------ ∆ε
k 2  µT 

2(n)
ε 3ε
≅ ---- + -- --∆ε
k 2k

Menter’s SST k – ω model has an additional cross-diffusion term in the ω equation. This
term is treated implicitly (See reference 26).

(n + 1) (n) ∂
Cω ≅ Cω + C ∆ω (H-190)
∂ω ω
(n) Cω
≅ C ω – --------- ∆ω
ω

(The negative sign insures that, when taken to the left-hand side, this term increases the
diagonal dominance of the implicit matrix.)

H.8.1 Example

This example shows the solution method for the k equation in Menter’s SST model. All
other equations are solved in a similar fashion.

∂k ∂k M∞ 1 ∂  µ ∂k M ∞
----- + u j ------- = --- P k  -------- – β′kω  -------- + --- µ + -----T- -------  --------
1 Re
ρ  Re   M ∞ ρ ∂ x j  σ k ∂x j  Re 
(H-191)
∂t ∂x j

Written in generalized coordinates, with the production term treated explicitly (lagged in
time), this equation becomes:

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 H.8.1 Example

∂k ( n + 1 ) ∂k ( n + 1 ) ∂k ( n + 1 ) ∂k ( n + 1 )
----- = – U ----- – V ------ – W ----- (H-192)
∂t ∂ξ ∂η ∂ζ

1  M ∞ ( n ) Re ( n + 1 )
+ - P k --------
-- – β′kω  --------
ρ  Re   M ∞

1 ∂ 2 µ ∂k 
( ξ x + ξ y + ξ z )  µ + -----T- ----- 
2 2
+ --- 
ρ ∂ξ  σ k ∂ξ 

∂  2 µ ∂k 
( η x + η y + η z )  µ + -----T- ------ 
2 2
+
∂η  σ k ∂η 
µ ∂k  (n + 1)
∂ 2 M ∞
( ζ x + ζ y + ζ z )  µ + -----T- -----   -------
2 2
+ 
∂ζ  σ k ∂ζ   Re 
-

= RHS k

2 2 2
where the superscripts denote the time level. Note that the terms ( ξ x + ξ y + ξ z ) etc. are
not strictly correct as written. This is really short-hand notation. The correct way to
expand the diffusion terms is given in “Generalized Coordinate Form” on page 294. This
section also indicates how these metric terms are discretized.

U = ξx u + ξ y v + ξz w + ξt
V = ηx u + η y v + ηz w + ηt (H-193)

W = ζx u + ζ y v + ζz w + ζt

Define

(m + 1) (m)
∆k = k –k (H-194)

Then, t-TS subiterations are used (see Appendix B). (If no subiterations, then m = n .)

(m + 1) (n) (n) (n – 1)
(1 + φ)(k – k ) – φ(k – k )
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = RHS k (H-195)
∆t

φ = 0 for 1st order in time (also used for non-time-accurate runs), φ = 1 ⁄ 2 for 2nd
order in time. Linearize the right-hand-side terms that are taken at time level ( m + 1 ):

∂k ( m + 1 ) ∂k ( m ) upwind
– U ----- ≅ – U ----- – U δ ξ ( ∆k ) (H-196)
∂ξ ∂ξ

CFL3D User’s Manual 301

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

(m + 1) (m)
–  -------- β′kω ≅ –  -------- β′kω –  -------- β′ω ( ∆k )
Re Re Re
 M ∞  M ∞  M ∞
(H-197)

(m + 1) (m)
M ∞ 1 ∂  ∂k 
 ------- M ∞ 1 ∂  ∂k  M∞ 1 ∂
χ ----- ≅  -------- ---  χ ξ -----  +  -------- --- { χ ξ δ ξ ( ∆k ) }
 Re  ρ ∂ ξ  ξ ∂ξ 
- ---
 Re  ρ ∂ ξ  Re  ρ ∂ ξ
(H-198)
   ∂ξ 

µ
where χ ξ represents ( ξ x + ξ y + ξ z )  µ + -----T- .
2 2 2
 σ k

The equation is approximately factored and the contribution of the S D term to the left-
hand side is added in the first factor only.

M∞ 1 ∂
+ ∆t  -------- β′ω – ∆t  -------- --- ( χ ξ δ ξ )
1 upwind Re
-----------------2- ( 1 + φ )I + ∆tU δ ξ
 M ∞  Re  ρ ∂ ξ
(H-199)
(1 + φ)
M∞ 1 ∂
– ∆t  -------- --- ( χ η δ η )
upwind
( 1 + φ )I + ∆tV δ η
 Re  ρ ∂ η
M∞ 1 ∂
– ∆t  -------- --- ( χ ζ δ ζ ) ∆k = R
upwind
( 1 + φ )I + ∆tW δ ζ
 Re  ρ ∂ ζ

(n – 1) (m) (n)
R = ∆ tRHS k + φ∆k – (1 + φ)(k –k ) (H-200)

This equation is solved in a series of three sweeps in each of the three coordinate direc-
tions:

M∞ 1 ∂
+ ∆t  -------- β′ω – ∆t  -------- --- ( χ ξ δ ξ ) ∆k∗ = R
upwind Re
( 1 + φ )I + ∆tU δ ξ
 M ∞  Re  ρ ∂ ξ
M∞ 1 ∂
– ∆t  -------- --- ( χ η δ η ) ∆k∗∗ = ( 1 + φ )∆k∗
upwind
( 1 + φ )I + ∆tV δ η
 Re  ρ ∂ η (H-201)

M∞ 1 ∂
– ∆t  -------- --- ( χ ζ δ ζ ) ∆k = ( 1 + φ )∆k∗∗
upwind
( 1 + φ )I + ∆tW δ ζ
 Re  ρ ∂ ζ
(m + 1) (m)
k = k + ∆k

Each sweep requires the solution of a scalar tridiagonal matrix. In versions of CFL3D prior
to March 2002, φ = 0 always for the turbulence equations, regardless of the temporal
order of accuracy of the mean flow equations.

H.9 Limiting

As a precaution, many of the turbulence quantities are limited in practice. Whether all
of these conditions are necessary or not for the models to work and/or converge well is

302 CFL3D User’s Manual

 H.9 Limiting

unknown. Some are probably included only because they were tried at some point and
never removed.

•In all models, the linearized S D term is added to the left-hand-side matrix only if its
contribution is positive.

•In all models, the terms D, ν̂, k, ω , and ε are not allowed to become negative. If the
equation “wants” to yield a negative value, it is instead set to some very small positive
number. (A counter also sums the number of times this happen and it is output in the
*.turres output file.)

•In all the k – ω models as well as the k – ε models for Abid and Gatski-Speziale, the
production term in the k equation (i.e.

1 T ∂u M
--- τ ij -------i  -------∞-
ρ ∂x j  Re 

or an approximation thereof) is limited to be less than or equal to 20 times the

destruction term in that equation.

•In all EASM models, the τ 11, τ 22 , and τ 33 terms are limited to be positive (realizabil-
ity constraint).

T ∂u i
•In all EASM models, the production term τ ij ------- is limited to be positive.
∂x j

•In the Girimaji EASM models, the production term

1 T ∂u M
--- τ ij -------i  -------∞-
ρ ∂x j  Re 

is limited (in both the k and ε equations) to be less than or equal to 40ε  -------- .
Re
 M ∞

•In the Girimaji EASM models, the term

µ ∂ k 2 M∞
ε  -------- – 2 ---  ---------  --------
Re
 M ∞ ρ  ∂x j   Re 

is limited to be positive.

CFL3D User’s Manual 303

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

•In all two-equation models, the nondimensional eddy viscosity µ T is limited to be

less than or equal to 100,000.

2 2
•In the Gatski-Speziale EASM models, η and ζ are each limited to be less than or
equal to 10.

•In the Gatski-Speziale EASM models, C µ is limited to be between 0.005 and 0.187.

•In the k – ε models, f µ is limited to be less than or equal to 1.

•In the Girimaji EASM models, η 1 and η 2 are each limited to be less than or equal to
1200.

•In the Girimaji EASM model, G 1 is limited to be between -0.005 and -0.2.

•In the Gatski-Speziale EASM k – ω models, “ ω ” in the denominator of the nonlinear

T
terms in τ ij is limited to be greater than or equal to the free-stream value of ω .

T
•In the EASM k – ε models, “ ε ”in the denominator of the nonlinear terms in τ ij is
limited to be greater than or equal to the free-stream value of ε only in terms that
appear in the Navier-Stokes equations. This limiting is not done for the τ ij terms that
appear in the S P terms in the k and ε equations.

•In the one- and two-equation models, the diffusion term in one coordinate direction,
for example, can be written as

∂ ∂χ
B ------ = B 1 χ i + 1 –  B 1 + B 1 χ i + B 1 χ i – 1
∂ ξ ∂ξ i + --  i + -- i – -- i – --
2 2 2 2

In Baldwin-Barth and Spalart-Allmaras, the terms are limited as follows:

B = max  B 1, 0
1
i + --  i + -- 
2 2

B = max  B 1, 0
1
i – --  i – -- 
2 2

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 H.10 Wall Function

H.10 Wall Function

A simple approach for wall functions is taken from Abdol-Hamid, Lakshmanan, and
Carlson1. This approach modifies the eddy-viscosity value µ T, w at the wall only. The wall
shear stress is estimated from law-of-the-wall values at the first cell center off the wall and
is used to determine an “equivalent” eddy viscosity at the wall.

Wall functions can be employed when the grid spacing is too coarse in the direction
+ + +
normal to the wall; typically y lies in the range 30 < y < 200 . (The y value of the first
grid point off the wall should be O(1) to ensure decent turbulent computations when no
wall functions are used. See Section 2.2.) Wall functions are invoked in CFL3D by setting
the value of ivisc(m) to be negative.

A caution: While wall functions can work very well, they can also sometimes cause
problems. They are not strictly valid for separated flows, although many people use them
anyway with reasonable success. It is recommended that wall functions not be used with
the Baldwin-Lomax model in CFL3D. With other turbulence models, it is recommended
that they be used sparingly, if at all. In our opinion, it is better to make a turbulent grid
+
( y = O ( 1 ) ) whenever possible and avoid the use of wall functions.

The wall function replaces the eddy viscosity at the ghost cell center at walls as follows:

µ T, ghost = 2µ T, w – µ T, 1

+2
n µ1 M∞
µ T, w = µ 1 ------------------------  -------- – 1
∂u 2  Re 
ρ 1  ------ d (H-202)
 ∂y  1

2 2 2
 ∂u ( u1 – uw ) + ( v1 – vw ) + ( w1 – ww )
------ = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
 ∂y  1 d1

where d 1 is the distance to the nearest wall from the first cell center off the wall and

CFL3D User’s Manual 305

APPENDIX H Turbulence Model Equations

+
for R c ≤ 20.24 n = Rc
7

∑ a0 ( n )Rc
+ n–1
for 20.24 < R c ≤ 435 n = a0 ( 1 ) +
n=2
5 (H-203)

∑
+ n–1
for 435 < R c ≤ 4000 n = a1 ( 1 ) + a 1 ( n )R c
n=2
3

∑ a2 ( n )Rc
+ n–1
for R c > 4000 n = a2 ( 1 ) +
n=2

2 2 2
ρ 1 ( u 1 – u w ) + ( v 1 – v w ) + ( w 1 – w w ) d 1 Re
R c = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------  --------
 M ∞
(H-204)
µ1

a 1 ( 1 ) = 5.777191
a 0 ( 1 ) = 2.354039 a 1 ( 2 ) = 6.8756983 ×10
–2

a 0 ( 2 ) = 0.117984 –6
a 1 ( 3 ) = – 7.1582745 ×10
–4
a 0 ( 3 ) = – 4.2899192 ×10 –9
a 1 ( 4 ) = 1.5594904 ×10
–6
a 0 ( 4 ) = 2.0404148 ×10 – 13
a 1 ( 5 ) = – 1.4865778 ×10 (H-205)
–9
a 0 ( 5 ) = – 5.1775775 ×10

a 0 ( 6 ) = 6.2687308 ×10
– 12 a 2 ( 1 ) = 31.08654
–2
a 0 ( 7 ) = – 2.916958 ×10
– 15 a 2 ( 2 ) = 5.0429072 ×10
–8
a 2 ( 3 ) = – 2.0072314 ×10

306 CFL3D User’s Manual