III.

IRONMAKING

Iron making evolved over a few thousand years. Using the ancient "bloomery"
method, iron ore was converted directly into wrought iron by heating the ore
while at the same time melting the ore's impurities and squeezing them out
with hand hammers. This is also called the "direct process." By the 1100s
water-powered hammers replaced hand hammers for forging out bars of iron.

In the late 1300s, some theorize that because of the ravages of the plague
upon the labor forces in Europe, water power began to replace human or
animal power to blow the air into iron making furnaces. Using water-powered
bellows, a large and consistent volume of air created enough heat to
completely melt the ore from which iron was made. The technology created
two major developments in iron production. First, blast furnaces were now
able to make cast iron for the production of hollowware such as pots and
kettles. Second, in the new "indirect process" cast iron could be converted
into wrought iron with a higher yield of iron from the ore than the direct
process.

It is the indirect process that was brought to Massachusetts and spread

through North America by the skilled metallurgists/iron makers that came to
Saugus. With improvements, the direct process continued as well and a few
of the second generation iron making plants after Saugus thrived in the rural
economy using the older, bloomery method.

Blast furnace, a vertical shaft furnace that produces liquid metals by the reaction of a
flow of air introduced under pressure into the bottom of the furnace with a mixture of
metallic ore, coke, and flux fed into the top. Blast furnaces are used to produce pig
iron from iron ore for subsequent processing into steel, and they are also employed in
processing lead, copper, and other metals. Rapid combustion is maintained by the
current of air under pressure.
blast furnace and hot-blast stove
Schematic diagram of a modern blast furnace (right) and a hot-blast stove (left).(more)
Blast furnaces produce pig iron from iron ore by the reducing action of carbon (supplied
as coke) at a high temperature in the presence of a fluxing agent such as limestone.
Ironmaking blast furnaces consist of several zones: a crucible-shaped hearth at the
bottom of the furnace; an intermediate zone called a bosh between the hearth and
the stack; a vertical shaft (the stack) that extends from the bosh to the top of the
furnace; and the furnace top, which contains a mechanism for charging the furnace. The
furnace charge, or burden, of iron-bearing materials (e.g., iron ore pellets and sinter),
coke, and flux (e.g., limestone) descends through the shaft, where it is preheated and
reacts with ascending reducing gases to produce liquid iron and slag that accumulate in
the hearth. Air that has been preheated to temperatures from 900 to 1,250 °C (1,650 and
2,300 °F), together with injected fuel such as oil or natural gas, is blown into the furnace
through multiple tuyeres (nozzles) located around the circumference of the furnace near
the top of the hearth; these nozzles may number from 12 to as many as 40 on large
furnaces. The preheated air is, in turn, supplied from a bustle pipe, a large-diameter
pipe encircling the furnace. The preheated air reacts vigorously with the preheated coke,
resulting in both the formation of the reducing gas (carbon monoxide) that rises through
the furnace and a very high temperature of about 1,650 °C (3,000 °F) that produces the
liquid iron and slag.

The bosh is the hottest part of the furnace because of its close proximity to the reaction
between air and coke. Molten iron accumulates in the hearth, which has a taphole to
draw off the molten iron and, higher up, a slag hole to remove the mixture of impurities
and flux. The hearth and bosh are thick-walled structures lined with carbon-
type refractory blocks, while the stack is lined with high-quality fireclay brick to protect
the furnace shell. To keep these refractory materials from burning out, plates, staves, or
sprays for circulating cool water are built into them.

The stack is kept full with alternating layers of coke, ore, and limestone admitted at the
top during continuous operation. Coke is ignited at the bottom and burned rapidly with
the forced air from the tuyeres. The iron oxides in the ore are chemically reduced to
molten iron by carbon and carbon monoxide from the coke. The slag formed consists of
the limestone flux, ash from the coke, and substances formed by the reaction of
impurities in the ore with the flux; it floats in a molten state on the top of the molten
iron. Hot gases rise from the combustion zone, heating fresh material in the stack and
then passing out through ducts near the top of the furnace.

Blast furnaces may have the following ancillary facilities: a stock house where the
furnace burden is prepared prior to being elevated to the furnace top by skip cars or a
belt conveyor system; a top-charging system consisting of a vertical set of double bells
(cones) or rotating chutes to prevent the release of furnace gas during charging; stoves
that use the furnace off-gases to preheat the air delivered to the tuyeres; and a cast
house, consisting of troughs that distribute liquid iron and slag to appropriate ladles for
transfer to steelmaking furnaces and slag-reclamation areas.

In Europe, the blast furnace developed gradually over the centuries from small furnaces
operated by the Romans, in which charcoal was used for reducing ore to a semisolid
mass of iron containing a relatively small amount of carbon and slag. The iron mass was
then hammered to remove the slag, yielding wrought iron. Increases in the height of the
furnace, coupled with mechanical bellows for introducing greater amounts of air into it,
allowed the higher temperatures needed to produce a high-carbon iron known as cast,
or pig, iron. This mode of production was used in central Europe by the mid-14th
century and was introduced into England about 1500. Charcoal was the only furnace
fuel until the 17th century, when the depletion of forests that provided the charcoal in
England led to experiments with coke, which is produced from coal. Coke had been
widely adopted for use in blast furnaces by the mid-18th century, and the principle of
heating air before it entered the furnace was introduced in the early 19th century.

Modern blast furnaces range in size from 20 to 110 metres (70 to 360 feet),
have hearth diameters of 6 to 15 metres (20 to 50 feet), and can produce from
1,000 to about 15,000 tons of pig iron daily. Steelmaking accounts for about 8
percent of global greenhouse gas emissions—the most of any industry—and
these emissions contribute to global warming. Some blast furnaces have been
fitted with carbon capture technology to decrease the amount of carbon
dioxide emitted. However, some steelmakers plan to use a hydrogen-based
process that would not require blast furnaces and would emit only water as a
by-product.

The Blast Furnace: Turning Ore into Molten Metal

The blast furnace is a powerhouse of the steel industry, continuously converting iron ore
into molten iron for further processing. Here's a breakdown of the key steps involved:

1. Charging:

 Imagine a giant, vertical steel cylinder lined with fire-resistant bricks. At the top, a
hungry furnace awaits its meal.
 This meal consists of three main ingredients:
o Iron ore: The rusty-looking raw material rich in iron oxides (iron combined
with oxygen).
o Coke: A super-heated fuel made from coal, providing intense heat for the
process.
o Limestone: Acting as a flux, it helps remove impurities from the iron ore.
 These ingredients are carefully layered and fed continuously into the top of the
furnace using a specialized system.

2. Smelting:

 The real magic happens in the fiery depths below.

 A preheated blast of air, sometimes enriched with oxygen, is forced through
nozzles (called tuyeres) at the bottom of the furnace.
 This hot air ignites the coke, generating intense heat (around 1,500 °C or 2,700
°F).
 At these scorching temperatures, several key reactions take place:
o The coke reacts with the oxygen to create carbon monoxide, a key
reducing agent.
o The carbon monoxide then steals oxygen atoms away from the iron oxide
in the ore, transforming it back into pure iron.
o Limestone reacts with impurities like silica in the ore, forming a molten
slag (a glassy waste product).

3. Slag Separation:

 As the reactions progress, the furnace becomes a zone of descending solids and
ascending hot gases.
 The molten iron, being denser than the slag, sinks towards the bottom of the
furnace.
  The lighter slag, on the other hand, floats on top of the molten iron.

4. Hot Metal Production:

 This is the grand finale!

 Tapping holes are located at the bottom of the furnace, allowing the separation
and removal of the molten iron (often called hot metal) at regular intervals.
 The hot metal is then transferred to further processing units where it's refined into
steel.
 The slag is also tapped off and can be used in various industrial applications.

The blast furnace is a marvel of industrial chemistry, continuously churning out molten
iron, the lifeblood of the steel industry.

the functions of those key components in a blast furnace:

1. Coke:

 Function: The primary fuel source.

 Details: Made by heating coal in an oxygen-limited environment, coke burns
intensely providing the vast amount of heat (around 1500 °C or 2700 °F) required
for the iron ore reduction process.
 Another crucial role: During combustion, coke releases carbon monoxide (CO)
which acts as a reducing agent. This CO steals oxygen atoms from iron oxide
(FeO) in the ore, transforming it back into pure iron (Fe).

2. Flux (limestone):

 Function: Acts as a cleaning agent, removing impurities from the iron ore.
 Details: Limestone (CaCO3) decomposes at the high temperatures inside the
furnace. The calcium (Ca) from the limestone reacts with unwanted elements like
silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al) present in the iron ore.
 The benefit: These impurities form a calcium-rich silicate compound called slag.
This molten slag, lighter than molten iron, floats on top, allowing for easy
separation during tapping.

3. Refractories:

 Function: The unsung heroes, providing a heat-resistant lining for the furnace.
 Details: Made from special fire-resistant materials like alumina bricks or
magnesia bricks, refractories can withstand the extreme temperatures (up to
1500°C) inside the furnace.
 Their crucial role: They protect the steel shell of the furnace from the intense
heat and chemical reactions taking place within. Without them, the furnace would
quickly crumble.
  Selection is important: Different areas of the furnace experience varying
temperatures and stresses. Refractory materials are chosen based on their
specific properties to ensure they can handle the conditions in that zone.

While the blast furnace has been the dominant ironmaking technology for over a
century, concerns about environmental impact and a desire for more flexibility are
driving the exploration of alternative methods. Here's a look at two promising
alternatives:

1. Direct Reduction (DR):

 Process: DR bypasses the high temperatures and coke requirement of the blast
furnace.
 Key steps:
o Iron ore is exposed to a reducing gas, typically hydrogen (H2) or natural
gas (CH4), at much lower temperatures (around 650 °C or 1200 °F).
o The reducing gas removes oxygen from the iron oxide, converting it to a
porous, sponge-like iron material called Direct Reduced Iron (DRI).
 Advantages:
o Significantly lower carbon emissions compared to blast furnaces, making it
more environmentally friendly.
o More flexibility in feedstock, as DRI can be produced from various iron ore
sources and even recycled iron scrap.
 Disadvantages:
o Reliant on a clean source of reducing gas, such as hydrogen from
renewable sources, to minimize environmental impact.
o DRI is typically more expensive to produce than pig iron from a blast
furnace.

2. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF):

 Process: Unlike the blast furnace, which produces molten iron, EAFs directly
melt and refine steel scrap into new steel.
 Operation:
o EAFs use powerful electric arcs to generate intense heat, melting the steel
scrap.
o Additional alloys and fluxes are added to refine the molten steel and
achieve the desired properties.
 Advantages:
o Significantly lower energy consumption compared to blast furnace-based
steelmaking due to the use of scrap metal.
o Reduced greenhouse gas emissions as less virgin iron needs to be
produced.
 Disadvantages:
o Reliant on a steady supply of high-quality scrap metal, which can be a
limitation in some regions.
 o EAFs may not be suitable for producing all types of steel, particularly
those requiring very high purity.

The Future of Ironmaking

The ideal solution likely involves a combination of these technologies. DRI can provide
high-quality iron units for EAFs, especially when paired with renewable hydrogen
production, reducing the reliance on blast furnaces and their associated emissions.

Research and development efforts are also exploring other alternative ironmaking
methods, such as smelting reduction processes using biomass or captured carbon
dioxide. As the steel industry strives for a more sustainable future, these innovative
technologies hold promise for cleaner and more efficient iron production.