Biology

B3.Biological molecules

The bodies of all living things are made of many different kinds of
chemicals. Most of our bodies are made up of water and also
contain Carbohydrates , proteins and fats.
In most organisms almost 80% of the body is made up of water.
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Metabolic reactions - are chemical reactions that happens inside
every living organisms.

Solvent - a liquid in which a solute is dissolved to make a solution.

Example - water , acids…

Solute - a substance in which dissolves in a solvent to make a

solution.
Example - salt dissolved in water (salt is a solute and water is a
solvent)

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*CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are made of 3 kinds of atoms - carbon , hydrogen

and oxygen (C , H , O )
A carbohydrate molecule has about twice as many hydrogen atoms
as carbon or oxygen atoms.

There are 3 types of carbohydrates:

In which the simplest sugar is called

+Monosaccharides (simple sugars )

They are sweet and soluble in water.
Example - glucose and Fructose
When 2 simple sugar molecules are joined together it is called

+Disaccharides ( complex sugars )

They are sweet in taste and soluble in water just like simple
sugars
Example - Sucrose ( sugar that is used in hot drinks )
Maltose (malt sugar )
Lactose

When many simple sugar molecules are joined together is it called

+Polysaccharides - consist of many simple sugar molecules ;

thousands , joined together in a long chain )
They are insoluble in water and DO NOT TASTE SWEET
Example - cellulose , starch , glycogen.

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Functions of carbohydrates-
-carbohydrates are needed for energy , 1g of carbohydrates
releases 17 kJ of energy, energy is released by respiration.
-the carbohydrate that is usually used in reparation is called
Glucose.
- Human blood plasma contains dissolved Glucose.
- plants uses glucose in respiration to provide them with energy
however they do not transport glucose around their bodies. They
instead transport sucrose , their cells change sucrose to glucose
when needed.
- plant stores carbohydrates as starch, some plants store large
quantities of starch in their seeds or tubers and used these as food.
- animals stores carbohydrates in form of polysaccharides like
glycogen. Only small portion of glycogen can be stored , mostly
stored in cells in the liver and muscles.
- Cellulose us used to make the criss-cross bers from which plant
walls are constructed.

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*FATS - LIPIDS
Fats like carbohydrates contains 3 kinds of atoms - carbon ,
hydrogen and oxygen ( C, H, O ).
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 A fat molecule is made of 4 smaller molecule joined together , one
of these is glycerol attracted tot he glycerol are 3 long molecules
called fatty acids.

-fats provide us with energy , the energy the fats provide is more
than twice of carbohydrates, therefore 1g of fats is equivalent to
39 kJ.
- Fats are insoluble in water and fats that are liquid at room
temperature are called oil.
- Inorder for fats to be digested the fat have to be broken down
into glycerol and fatty acids.
- The extra engird fats provided are helpful for storing energy . In
mammals , cells partically ones underneath the skin become
lled with large drops of fats or oils, this can be used when
needed. It also insulated the temperature of the body by keeping
it heated in very cold environment. The thick layer of fats called
blubber.
- Plants also store oils in their seeds , this provide a good store of
energy for germination . Eg, peanut , coconut and castor oil.
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*PROTEIN
-Proteins contains 4 kinds of atom - carbon , hydrogen , oxygen and
nitrogen ( C, H, O, N) and small amount of sulfur.
-Like polysaccharides proteins are made of long chains of smaller
molecules joined end to end. These smaller molecules are called
amino acids.
(There are about 20 kinds of amino acids in which can be joined
together in any order to make protein molecule .)
-Proteins are building blocks, they are made of amino acids it is
very important for all cells in our body ; needed for growth and
repair of tissues .
-plants contains less protein than animals

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- some proteins are soluble in water .eg. hemoglobin ( red
substance contains in blood n)
- Some proteins are insoluble in water . Eg. Keratin ( ngernails
and hair are made up of keratin )
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- Unlike carbohydrates and fats , proteins are not used for energy
but instead used for growth and repair damaged parts of body
and tissues
- Protein when digested breakdown into smaller pieces called
amino acids and it will form into a new proteins used for ghting
infections , growth and repair.
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*enzymes
-Enzymes are made of proteins. And are proteins that act as a
biological catalyst .
Many chemical reactions in organism are called metabolic
reactions, requires a lot of energy.
-the chemical reaction are speeded by what called Catalysts, it
alters the rate of a chemical reaction, without being changed itself .
(almost every metabolic reaction is controlled by enzymes without
it reactions would take place very slowly.)
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-catalyst can be used up all over again without losing.
-when enzymes take place in a metabolic reaction it changes into a
new unique enzymes
+different foods need different enzymes to be broken-down.
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-Enzymes that digest Starch are called Amylase.

-Enzymes that digest Proteins are called Proteases.
-Enzymes that digest lipids are called Lipases
-Enzymes that break down carbohydrates are called
Carbohydrases.
-Carbohydrases that break down maltose are called maltase
Sucrose are called sucrase
Starch are called Amylase

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HOW AN ENZYME WORKS ?
A chemical reaction always involve one substance changing into
another . In an enzyme- controlled reaction ; the substance that is
present at the beginning is called substrate. And the substance in
with is made by the reaction is called Product.
Example . The substrate foe the enzyme amylase is starch and the
product
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 -Active site - a region that is found on the enzymes, a dent found in
enzyme molecules
- all enzymes have active sites , each enzyme has an active site
that t exactly in its substrate. This means that each enzyme
can only act on particular kind of substrate.( it often known as
the lock and key mechanism )

PROPERTIES oF ENZYMES
+all enzymes are proteins
+enzymes are made inactive by high temperature - this is due to it
being protein molecules which can be damage by heat.
+enzymes are made inactive by Hugh temperature - works best at a
particular temperature usually 37ºc
+enzymes works best in a particular pH- some work best in low pH
or acid , and some work best at neutral or High pH (alkaline
conditions )
+Enzymes are catalyst
+enzymes are speci c - this means each kind of enzyme will only
catalyse 1 kind of chemical reaction.

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TEMPERATURE and ENZYME ACTIVITY
Most chemical reaction happen faster at higher temperature. This
is because the molecule have more kinetic energy - they move
around faster . This mean it will bump into each other more
frequently.
Enzyme can also be damaged by high temperatures . For human
enzymes , this begins to happen from about 40ºc upwards. As
temperature increases beyond this the enzyme started to lose its
shape , the active site no longer t perfectly with the substrate this
is called Denatured , it can no longer catalyse the reaction.

-optimum temperature - in which the temperature where enzymes

work fastest , for different enzymes have different optimum
temperature.
Example , human digestive system have an optimum temperature
of 37ºc. Enzymes in plants have optimum temperature of 28 - 30ºc.
And as for pH the optimum pH inside the human stomach is 2 .
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Benedict’s test Testing for If contains reducing If no sugar it will
carbohydrate sugar it will turn brick- remain blue
red

Iodine solution Testing for starch Will turn black if there is If there no starch it will
starch. remains organs - brown

Ethanol emulsion test Testing for fats Turn opaque when there Stay transparent if there
is fats is no fat

Biuret test Testing for protein Turn purple if there is Remains blue if there is
protein protein
B4.Plant Nutrition

-Organic substance - substance which derive from plants.

-Inorganic substance - substance which do not derive from plants
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-photosynthesis - the process by which plant manufacture
carbohydrate from raw materials using energy from light.

Word equation.
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water ————> glucose + oxygen
Chlorophyll

Balanced equation
Sunlight
6 CO2 + 6 H2O ——————-> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Chlorophyll

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-photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction

Chlorophyll is the green pigment which makes plant green ,it is kept
inside the chloroplast of the plant cells. When sunlight falls on the
chlorophyll molecule , some of the energy in the light is absorbed , the
chlorophyll then realeases energy . The released energy makes the
carbon dioxide combine with water with help of enzymes inside the
chloroplast. The glucose that is made contains engird which originally
from the sunlight so in this process light energy transferred into
chemical energy.

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LEAVES STRUCTURE

A leaf consist of a board , at part called the Lamina. This joined to the
rest of the plant by a leaf stalk.
Running through the leave stalk are vascular bundles , which then form
veins in the leaf. These contain tubes which transport substances.

- Lamina - a board , at part of the leaf

- Vascular bundle - part of the plant which form veins and tubes that
carry substances
- Phloem tube - carry minerals from the roots to the plant.
- Xylem tube - carry water
- Epidermis - a layer of closely tting cells found on the top and
bottom of the leaf with a purpose of protecting inner layer of the
plant.
- cuticle - waxy substance that lies on top of the upper epidermis
purpose to stop water evaporating from the leaf.
- Stomata (stoma for singular ) - the small openings found on the
bottom of the leaf .
- Guard cells - epidermal cells which control gas diffusion by
regulating the opening and closure of the stomatal pores.
- Mesophyll - middle layer of the plant
- Palisade mesophyll - cells that nearer to the top of the leaf arranged
like a fence . Contains more chloroplast than spongy mesophyll
- Spongy palisade - cells underneath palisade mesophyll , loosely
arranged with large air space between them.
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Carbon dioxide .
The leaf obtain Carbon dioxide from the air , the carbon dioxide enters
the leaf through the stomata by diffusion . Behind each stoma theres an
air space which connect to other air space between the spongy
mesophyll , therefor the carbon dioxide can diffuse to all cells in the leaf
, then it can diffusion through the cell wall and cell membrane of each
cell in which it will diffuse into the chloroplast.
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Water.
Water is obtained from the soil , it travels through the roots of the
plant , then the Xylem carries the water through call part of the plant,
the xylem travels to the mesophyll cells which then the water can get
into he cell by osmosis,
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Sunlight .
Cells that need sunlight are the mesophyll cells . The thinness of the leaf
allow the sunlight to penetrate through it and reaches the cell. To the
help with the process the epidermal cells are transparent with no
chloroplast.
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Uses of glucose
+ used for energy
+ Stored as starch - glucose is turned into starch and stored in the leaf.
Since glucose is a simple sugar it is soluble in water therefor it is very
reactive substance . By turning it into starch it can easily be stored for
later usage - the starch granules is stored inside the chloroplast.
+ used to make proteins and other organic substances - glucose is used
to make other organic matter like carbohydrates including sucrose
and cellulose. Plant can also use the sugar to make amino acids
which built up into proteins.
+ Changed to sucrose for transport - glucose is tuned into sucrose , by
doing this make it easier for transporting . It is because glucose is a
rather reactive substance there for Turing it into the complex sugar
like sucrose it is less reactive and easier to be transported , the
 sucrose is dissolved in the sap of the phloem and distributed to parts
of the plant that needed them for growth.
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Importance of minerals
+ nitrogen - nitrogen ions needed for the plant to make amino acids
which can be used to make proteins without nitrogen the plant will
turn weak and started to yellow.
+ Magnesium - magnesium ion is needed for making chlorophyll
without magnesium , yellowing started to occur between the veins of
the leave .