ANIMAL NUTRITION

Objectives:

 Define balanced diet

 Explain why diet and energy intake should be related to age and physical activity of an
individual.
 List chemical elements which make up: carbohydrates, fats and proteins
 Describe the tests for starch, reducing sugars, protein and fats.
 Define the term enzyme as a protein which functions as a biological catalyst.
 Describe properties of enzymes
 Investigate and describe the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity.
 Identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and the associated organs.
 Describe the main functions of the various parts with relation to ingestion, digestion,
absorption, assimilation and egestion.
 Describe physical digestion with reference to chewing, emulsification and peristalsis.
Describe chemical digestion and the function of amylase, protease and lipase in digestion.
 Investigate the action of amylase on starch.
 Describe absorption of nutrients in the ileum.
 Describe the significance of the villi in increasing the internal surface area.
 State the function of the hepatic portal vein.
 Describe the role of the liver in glucose metabolism, storage, deamination and
detoxification.
 Describe the uses of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids.

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS THAT MAKE UP CARBOHYDRATES, FATS AND

PROTEINS

1. Carbohydrates - have carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in their molecules with a ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen in the same proportion as in water. They are made from simple sugars or
saccharide molecules which are the basic units or building blocks.

2. Lipids [fats and oils]

Like carbohydrates, lipids are organic compounds which contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
only but with less oxygen. Fats are solid while oils are liquid at room temperature. Lipids are
made from fatty acids and glycerol.

3. Proteins

These are organic compounds found in cells. They contain the elements Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Nitrogen and sometimes Sulphur and Phosphorus. The different elements combine
together to form the basic molecule known as an amino acid. There are 20 different kinds of
amino acids in our bodies and they join together in different sequences to form a variety of
protein molecules.

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1.2 DIET

Definition - diet refers to the food that a person habitually eats and drinks [the food
he/she eats everyday].

Balanced diet: - a diet containing all nutrients in their correct proportions to meet the
requirements of body.

ENERGY INTAKE
Diet especially energy intake, is related to age, sex, occupation, climate and condition of the
individual.

(i) Age - growing children need more of each nutrient than an adult. They need more energy as
they are more active and still growing. The elderly generally need less food because there is no
longer growth in their bodies and they are less active. However they should still be provided with
food that is easy to chew and swallow and has vitamins and minerals for vital processes.
(ii) Sex - Boys are generally much more active than girls and therefore require more
energy intake.

(iii) Occupation - the daily activities of individuals dictate how much energy food must
be taken in. A manual worker would need more energy food than an office worker who does
light work.

(iv) Climate - in cold conditions more energy food is needed for the release of heat
energy to keep the body warm. Some animals in cold regions store fat under their skin to
minimize heat loss.

(v) Pregnant woman – needs:

- more proteins for building up new tissues for the growing embryo
- more calcium for bone formation
- more iron for the formation of red blood cells of the embryo and,
- more energy food to be able to carry out all these activities.

FOOD TESTS

General tips:-
1. If given a solid food sample e.g a seed:
(i) Crush it to small pieces using a pestle and mortar or any appropriate technique
(ii) (applicable to all food tests except lipids!) add water and mix thoroughly to make a
solution. For the lipid test you add the reagent (ethanol) instead of water
[NOTE: for better results, you may decant or filter the mixture then use the supernatant or
filtrate]*
(iii) Put the solution in a test tube
2. If given a liquid sample start with (iii) above
3. If the sample is in powdered form start with (ii)

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TEST FOR STARCH
Reagent: Iodine solution (brown in color)
Procedure/method:
1. Put the sample in a test tube
2. add 2-20 drops of iodine solution to the sample and observe

If starch is present a blue-black colour will be observed.

If starch is absent a brown colour will be observed.
TEST FOR REDUCING SUGAR

Reagent: Benedict’s solution (blue)

Procedure/method:
1. Put the sample in a test tube.
2. add 2-20 drops of Benedict’s solution to the sample.
3. heat the sample in a water bath for 10 minutes or until colour changes.
If reducing sugar is present the sample will show a series of colour changes from blue
to green, yellow, orange and finally brick-red.

[the range of colours indicate the varying amounts of reducing sugar, green being the least and
brick-red the greatest]*

If reducing sugar is absent, the blue colour remains.

Examples of reducing sugar are glucose, fructose, maltose etc.

TEST FOR PROTEIN (The biuret test)

Reagent: Sodium hydroxide (clear) and copper sulphate (blue)

Procedure/method:
1. Put the sample in a test tube.
2. Add 2-20 drops of dilute sodium hydroxide followed by 2-20 drops of copper sulphate
solution and observe.

If protein is present, a purple/lilac/violet/mauve colour will form.

If protein is absent, the sample remains blue.

[NB: Sodium hydroxide and copper sulphate make up the biuret solution].

TEST FOR LIPIDS/FATS AND OILS

Reagent: Ethanol (clear)
Procedure/method:
1. Put the sample in a dry test tube.
2. Add ethanol just enough to cover the sample and shake vigorously to extract fats.
3. Add 2-20 drops of water to the alcoholic mixture and observe.
If lipids are present, a white emulsion will form.
If lipids are absent, the mixture remains clear.

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ENZYMES

Definition:– an enzyme is a chemical substance, protein in nature that speeds up a chemical

reaction in the body. This means enzymes are biological catalysts.

Naming of enzymes

Enzymes are named using 2 systems; .

(a) Using the name of substrate (substance that the enzyme acts on) as the
prefix and adding the suffix "-ase". e.g,

Substrate Name of enzyme

protein Protease
lipid Lipase
maltose Maltase

(b) Using the name of the reaction that the enzyme is catalysing as the prefix and adding
the suffix "-ase". e.g.

Name of reaction Name of enzyme

synthesis synthase
hydrolysis hydrolase
dehydrogenation dehydrogenase
phosphorilation phosphorilase

Properties of enzymes

(a) Specificity to substrate or reaction

Enzymes are highly specific. This means an enzyme for one particular reaction may not
participate or catalyze any other reaction. Similarly, an enzyme that acts on a certain substrate
will only act on that substrate not any other substance. This is because only the reacting
substance (substrate) can fit into the reaction site/active site of the enzyme like "lock and key".

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(b) Sensitivity to temperature

 At low temperature enzymes are inactivate so that enzyme action is very low. There is
less energy and molecules move very slowly, more time is taken for enzyme to meet with
its substrate. Inactivated enzymes may be made active simply by increasing temperature.
 An increase in temperature will increase the rate of enzyme activity. However, this can
only go up to a certain temperature called optimum temperature, at which the enzyme
is most active.
 Beyond the optimum temperature the enzyme activity begins to go down because enzyme
gets denatured. Denaturation is a process whereby the molecular structure of proteins
(including enzymes) get destroyed by high temperature. [Denaturation is mostly an
irreversible action]

(c) Sensitivity to pH (Acidity and alkalinity)

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Different enzymes will work best under different levels of pH, some preferring acidic, some
alkaline and some neutral conditions, e.g. pepsin works best under acidic conditions[pH 2],
salivary amylase works best under neutral conditions[pH 7] and pancreatic enzymes work under
alkaline conditions. The enzyme’s optimum pH is the pH at which the enzyme works best.

(d) All enzymes are protein molecules.

(e) They do not get used up during the reaction (i.e., they remain unchanged at the end of the
reaction).

Classification of enzymes
Enzymes are classified according to whether they work outside or inside the cell.

(i) Intracellular enzymes - are secreted by the cell and do their work inside the cell
E.g, synthases.

(ii) Extracellular enzymes - are secreted by the cells to do their work outside the.
cells, e.g digestive enzymes.

[Did you know the digestive enzymes are hydrolases? This is because digestion is also known as
HYDROLYSIS in scientific terms!]*

Enzymes can also be grouped according to their mode of action.

(i) Catabolic enzymes are those enzymes that act by breaking down large molecules into smaller
ones. Examples include all the digestive system enzymes such as lipase, amylases, proteases
e.t.c.

(ii) Anabolic enzymes act by joining small molecules to form larger ones. E.g synthases.
Examples include synthetic enzymes that build up proteins in the ribosome and others that build
up sugar in plants during photosynthesis.

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THE HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL

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Definition of terms
1. Ingestion - taking in food through the mouth.
2. Digestion - breaking down of large, insoluble food molecules to smaller, simpler soluble
molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. There are two types of digestion:
(a) Physical digestion or mechanical digestion:-
This is breaking down food to smaller pieces by mechanical means. The chemical
nature of the food does not change. Physical digestion increases the surface area of
food for easier and faster enzyme digestion.
(b) Chemical digestion:-
The breakdown of large molecules to smaller ones through enzyme action. Here the
chemical nature of food changes.
3. Absorption – is when end-products of digestion are taken into the bloodstream.
4. Assimilation - the utilization of the end-products of digestion by body cells.
5. Egestion - removal of indigestible material through the anus.

Digestion in the buccal cavity/ mouth

When food has been ingested it is chewed in the mouth by the help of the teeth. Chewing or
mastication is an example of physical or mechanical digestion. This breaks the food into small
particles for 2 reasons:
 to increase the surface area of food for rapid digestion by enzymes.
 to make the food softer for easy swallowing.
The food is mixed with saliva which has an enzyme called salivary amylase for the digestion of
starch into maltose. This is an example of chemical digestion. Saliva also has mucus for
lubricating the food and also sticking the particles together to form a pellet called a food bolus.
When chewing is complete the food is swallowed. The epiglottis must be closed during the
process to prevent food entering the trachea. The food is moved down the esophagus by the
rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the inner circular muscles and the outer longitudinal
muscles so that the food bolus is propelled forward, a process called peristalsis.

Digestion in the stomach

When the food reaches the stomach the glands in its walls secrete gastric juice which has the
following components:
(a) Protein-digesting enzymes:-

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 Pepsin for digesting proteins to peptides
Rennin for coagulating/clotting milk protein.
(b) Hydrochloric acid which provides acidic conditions which are suitable for protein-
digesting enzymes. It also kills bacteria that enters the stomach with the food. The acid
denatures salivary amylase and stops its function hence there is no starch digestion in
the stomach!
[NB: this however does not mean that all starch is digested by the time food gets to the stomach.
The remaining starch would be digested in the duodenum]*
The gastric juice mixes with the food and the rhythmic contraction of muscles in the stomach
wall squeezes and rubs food, a process called churning. This turns food into a semi-liquid
mixture called chyme. This an example of physical of digestion. This acidic mixture is allowed
out of the stomach in small amounts at intervals of about 2 – 3 hours into the first part of the
small intestine, the duodenum.
Digestion in the duodenum
The duodenum is joined to two important tubes/ducts:

(i) Bile duct which brings bile from the gall bladder. Bile is produced by the liver and
stored in the gall bladder. Bile neutralizes the acidic chyme to create slightly alkaline
conditions suitable for pancreatic enzymes. It also breaks fats into tiny droplets, a
process called emulsification and gives fats a large surface area for fast digestion by
lipase.
(ii) Pancreatic duct which carries pancreatic juice into the duodenum. Pancreatic juices
are produced by pancreas.

Pancreatic juices contains:

i) Pancreatic amylase which digest starch into maltose

ii) Trypsin which digests peptides into amino acids
iii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate which neutralizes acid chyme from the stomach
[The final stages of digestion take place in the ileum with the help of the pancreatic juice
and intestinal juice which also has a variety of enzymes]*

Absorption in the ileum

The function of the ileum is mainly the absorption of the final end-products of digestion.
into the bloodstream. The ileum is efficient in absorbing digested food as it is adapted to this
function in the following ways:
1. It is fairly long and coiled thus food takes a long time passing through increasing
absorption.
2. It has millions of finger-like projections called villi (villus for one) and micro-villi which
increase the surface area for absorption.

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 A villus cross-section

3. The walls of the villi is one-cell thick such that end-products of digestion pass rapidly
through it to enter the bloodstream.
4. There is a dense network of blood capillaries in each villus for rapid uptake of end-
products of digestion into the bloodstream.
5. Lacteals helps in absorption of fatty acids and glycerol

The end-products of digestion

Enzyme substrate End-product

Amylase Starch maltose
Maltase maltose glucose
Trypsin Peptides amino acids
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and fructose
Lactase Lactose glucose and galactose
Lipase Lipids (fats and fatty acids and glycerol
oils)

The small molecules of the digested food pass into the epithelial cells and the through the wall of
capillaries in the villus and into the bloodstream. They are then carried away in capillaries, which
join together to form veins. These veins unite to form one large vein, the hepatic portal vein.
This vein carries all blood from the intestine to the liver, which may store or alter any of the
digestion products. When these products are released from the liver, they enter the general blood

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circulation and distributed to every body organ and tissue where they eventually enter the cells
for utilization as follows:
(a) Glucose
(i) used in respiration to release energy which drives all chemical processes in the cell.
(ii) Glucose not used immediately is converted by the liver with the help of a hormone called
Insulin. Insulin triggers/stimulates liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen

Glycogen can be broken down to release glucose into the blood by the help of a hormone called
glucagon if the blood sugar falls below the acceptable physiological levels.
(iii) Glucose may also be converted to fats and stored permanently in fat depots. Therefore,
eating more energy food than is necessary for your immediate energy needs may lead to obesity.

(b) Fatty acids and glycerol

(i) make phospholipids which are used for building cell membranes
(ii) energy stores and may only be used when the immediate energy source is exhausted
(iii) fats are stored in fat cells to form adipose tissue (fatty tissue) under the skin to insulate
against heat loss in cold regions.
(iv) Some fat is stored around delicate organs to cushion them against mechanical shock.

(c) Amino acids

(i) These are used for making proteins for the formation of new protoplasm. The new
protoplasm is used for cell formation.
(ii) They are also used to make plasma proteins, enzymes, antibodies, hormones etc.
(iii)Excess amino acids are broken down resulting in ammonia, a toxic substance which is
converted to urea which is less harmful to body tissues, and removed from the body by the
kidneys as part of urine. This process of breaking down excess amino acids is known as
deamination and occurs in the liver.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

1. Regulation of blood sugar

When the level of blood sugar (glucose) is high the pancreas secretes a hormone called insulin
which triggers the liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen which is then stored in the
liver and muscles. When the level of blood sugar drops below the acceptable homeostatic levels,
the pancreas secretes another hormone called glucagon which triggers the liver to convert the
stored glycogen to glucose and releases it into the blood to raise it back to normal.
2. Formation of bile
When red blood cells are broken down green and yellow bile pigments are formed. These are
excreted by the liver as part of bile which is stored and concentrated in the gall bladder.
3. Storage of iron
Senescent/old red blood cells are broken down by the liver and the iron in their hemoglobin is
recovered and stored in the liver.

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4. Deamination
This is a process whereby excess amino acids are broken down by the liver. It involves the
excision of the amino group (NH2) from the rest of the amino acid molecule (residue). The amino
group (NH2 is then converted to ammonia (NH3) which is harmful to body tissues. Therefore,
ammonia is immediately turned to urea, a less toxic compound which is excreted by the kidneys.
The residue is converted to glycogen which is stored by the liver.
5. Detoxification
Poisonous substances (e.g. those produced in the colon by bacterial action) or drugs entering the
blood are converted to harmless compounds by the liver and then excreted at the kidney in the
urine.
6. Storage of vitamins
The liver stores fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A and D.
7. Manufacture of plasma proteins
Most proteins in the blood plasma are produced by the liver e.g. fibrinogen responsible for blood
clotting.
8. Homeostasis.
Homeostasis means keeping constant the concentrations, pH or temperature of body fluids
including blood. The liver does so by carrying out the above-mentioned functions.

The large intestine (colon & rectum)

The main function of the colon is to absorb water from the indigestible material. The material
passing into the large intestine consists of water, indigestible matter (largely cellulose), mucus
and dead cells from the lining of the alimentary canal. It creates faeces by absorbing most of the
water, leaving behind a more solid residue. Minerals, bicarbonates and bile salts are reabsorbed.
The large intestine contains bacteria that live off the intestinal contents. In return they help
humans by synthesizing several essential vitamins that are absorbed in the large intestine.
Bacteria also produce gases such as methane and hydrogen sulphide. Sometimes these gases
escape through the anus causing the often embarrassing noises and smells (flatulence) that are a
by-product of their digestion of cellulose. The faeces are retained temporarily in the rectum
which when full passes them out through the anus in a process called egestion.

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