Digestive system

 Cell = basic building blocks of living organisms

 Tissue = group of cells working together to perform a function
 Organ = group of tissues working together to perform a function
 Organ system = group of organs working together to perform a function

Functions:

Function of digestive system: to break down large, insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble molecules
so it can be absorbed into the bloodstream

Mouth = mechanical digestion

Oesophagus = carries food to the stomach
Pancreas and salivary glands = glands which produce digestive enzymes
Stomach = produces hydrochloric acid which kills any bacteria present in the food and produces the
optimum pH for protease to work
Small intestine = site where soluble food molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream
Liver = produces bile
Large intestine = absorbs water from undigested food
Microvilli is found in the small intestine and has a large SA to increase absorption

Glucose used for = Respiration, can be converted into proteins

Respiration is important to release energy in every cell of our body
Glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water

Bile:
 Bile is made by the liver
 Stored in the gall bladder
 It’s an alkaline substance which neutralises the hydrochloric acid by the stomach
 Bile emulsifies fat to form smaller droplets = this increases the SA for the lipase to work on,
increasing the rate of digestion
 Enzymes

 Active site = specific area of an enzyme that is shaped to

allow other molecules to fit into it to undergo a reaction
 Substrate = molecule that fits into the active site to
undergo a reaction
 Enzyme substrate complex = structure formed when the
enzyme and substrate bind together for the reaction

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being used up and enzymes are
proteins
Enzymes have a specific active site which is complementary to their substrate

Metabolism = the sum of all the reactions in the body

Lock and key:

The shape of the enzyme active site and the substrate are complementary, so they bind together to
form an enzyme substrate complex. Once bound, the reaction takes place and the products are released
from the surface of the enzyme.

Effect of temperature on enzyme action:

 The optimum temperature is 37 degrees.
 When the temperature is 37 degrees, the rate of reaction increases because the molecules have
more kinetic energy so the substrate can fit into the active site more often so more collisions so
more reactions.
 When the temperature is too hot or too cold, the rate of reaction decreases because the active
site unfolds and loses it shape so the substrate can no longer fit into the active site, therefore
the enzymes denature and there are fewer reactions.

Effect of pH:
 The optimum pH for most enzymes is 7
 If its too acidic or alkaline , the rate of reaction decreases because the active site loses its shape
and the enzymes denature.
 Denaturing is irreversible
 Iodine practical = breakdown of starch to maltose by amylase

Method:
1. Place 1 drop of iodine into each well on a spotting tile.
2. Set up water baths at various temperatures (e.g. 0°C, 20°C, 40°C,
60°C and 80°C).
3. Add starch solution to 5 test tubes. Add amylase solution to
another 5 test tubes.
4. Place one starch and one amylase test tube into each water bath
for 5 minutes
5. Add the amylase to the starch in the 0°C water bath. Start the
timer.
6. Every 10 seconds, remove a sample of the starch-amylase solution
and add it to a drop of iodine on the spotting tile.
7. Repeat step 6 until the iodine no longer changes colour. Repeat
steps 5-7 for each of the temperatures.
8. Draw a graph to show the time taken for starch to be digested at
different temperatures.

Effect of bile on digestion of fat by lipase:

Method:
 In 2 tubes, place 5ml of milk, 7ml of sodium hydroxide carbonate and 5 drops of
phenolphthalein
 In 1 tube place 1ml of bile and in the other tube, add 1ml of water. Mix well
 Place 1ml of lipase into each tube, start the timer and time how long it takes to turn white.

Why does it turn colourless?

Because the production of fatty acids lowers the pH and changes the colour

Why did the milk with bile turn white first?

Because the bile emulsifies the fat, increasing the SA of the fat so the lipase can access more of the fat.
The lipase breaks down the fat into fatty acids and glycerol faster, which turns the milk white faster.

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 Chemical digestion
What type of metabolic reactions do enzymes cataylse

 building larger molecules from smaller molecules e.g. glucose -> starch
 changing one molecule to another e.g. glucose -> fructose
 breaking down larger molecules into smaller molecules e.g. carbohydrates -> glucose

Food is broken down mechanically, by chewing and mixing, and chemically, by enzymes

 Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars by carbohydrases, an example is amylase
 Amylase is found in the pancreas and salivary glands
 Maltase is found in the small intestine
 Amylase breaks down starch into maltose and then broken into glucose by maltase

Monosaccharides = glucose, fructose

Disaccarides = sucrose
Polysaccarides = starch, glycogen, cellulose

Protease:
 Proteins are broken down into amino acids by protease
 Where is it broken down? Stomach and small intestine
 Proteins are made of long chains of amino acids, which form proteins when joined together

Pepsin:
 Pepsin is found in the stomach
 Others are found in small intestine and
pancreas

Lipids:
 Lipids are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol by lipase
 In the stomach
 Found in pancreas and small intestine
 Food tests

To test for Negative test result Positive test result

Iodine Starch Orange/brown Blue/black
Benedict’s Sugars Light blue Orange
Biuret Proteins Light blue Purple
Ethanol (emulsion test) Lipids Colourless Cloudy

Method for iodine

 Add food sample to test tube
 Add a few drops of iodine and shake
 If it turns black/blue, starch is present

Method for Benedict’s

 Set up a water bath to 75 degrees
 Add food sample to a test tube with a few drops of Benedict’s solution
 Put test tube in water bath for 5 mins
 If glucose is present, it turns orange

Method for biuret

 Add food sample to test tube
 Add a few drops of biuret solution and gently shake
 If it contains protein, it will turn purple

Method for ethanol

 Add food sample to a test tube
 Add a few drops of distilled water and ethanol
 Shake the solution gently
 If it turns cloudy, lipids are present