Biology , term 3

B5. Animal nutrition

All living organisms need food inorder to survive and maintain
its nutrition. For animals it cannot make its own food so they it
take it from other organisms like plants and animals.

-Plants are the primary producers .

-animals whom eat plants are called primary consumers.
- for those animals whom eat other animals are called
secondary consumers.
- and animals which eats both plants and animals are called
tertiary consumers.

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The food in which animals eats everyday is called a Diet.
There are 7 types of nutrient :
+ carbohydrates
+ Proteins
+ Fats
+ Vitamins
+ Minerals
+ Water
+ Fibre or roughage

* balanced diet : a diet which contains all of the seven types of

nutrients in a correct amounts and proportion
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These nutrients provide us with energy.
Energy is needed for us to function. The amount of energy we
need for our daily lives depends on :
+ sex
+ Age
+ Job / activity that we are doing.

if we eat too much , the food that is not used up will be stored
as fats .
If we eat less we will have de ciency. An individual will required
every type of food inorder to thrive. The more active you are
the more energy required.

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*varieties in dietary requirements *

+ carbohydrates - a good source of energy. It includes foods

like starches , pasta , rice , potato , bread…
+ Proteins - major food for growth and repair. It includes foods
like meat , chicken breast , milk , eggs , nuts…
+ Lipids / fats - provides us with energy and especially its
works as an insulation for our body and energy storage. It
includes foods like oil , cheese , butter , coconut cream ,
yogurt…
+ Fibre/ roughage- provides bulk for the intestine to push food
through it , it helps the alimentary canals work properly. It
includes foods that are brous like whole wheat , whole
grains…
+ Water - it is needed for chemical reaction to take place in our
cells.
+ Vitamin - needed in small quantities to maintain our health , if
not enough vitamins consume it will lead to de ciency
disease . It includes foods like vegetables and fruits.
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 + Minerals - needed in small quantities . Minerals like iron and
calcium are particularly useful for the body
Vitamin and minerals de ciency diseases
+ Scurvy - is a diseases which cause by the de ciency of
vitamin C . It causes the pain in joints and muscles , bleeding
from the gums and other places.
- vitamin c is needed to make stretchy protein collagen found
in skin and other tissues , it keeps tissue in good repair.

+Rickets. - is a disease which bones become soft ad deformed

. Its common amongst children at young age, cause by the lack
of vitamin D
- Vitamin D helps calcium to absorb in bones and teeth.
+night blindness - causes by the lack of vitamin A . Vitamin A
maintain good vision and strong immunity against infections.

+ The de ciency of of Calcium , causes brittle bones and teeth

poor blood clotting.

+ The de ciency of Iron , causes anemia , in which there are

not enough red blood cells so the tissues do not get enough
oxygen delivered to them.
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Fats and heart diseases

Saturated fats - fats that are found in animals , fats like these
contains a lot of cholesterol.

Unsaturated fats - fats that can usually be found as plant oils.

Coronary heart disease - diseases in which cause by eating a

diet of high saturated fats and cholesterol.
+ this disease happens because fat deposits builds upon the
inside of arteries supplying the fats making it sti er and
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narrower . Reducing the ow of blood to the heart muscle cells
which cannot properly due to lack of oxygen . Potentially can
lead to blood clotting and heart attacks.

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Malnutrition and starvation

Malnutrition - eating too little or too much of our body demand.

An unbalanced diet lead to malnutrition.

Starvation - taking in less energy than is need for a long period

of time.

+ obesity - happens when energy that is not used up stored as

fats inside the body. Its dangerous for our health
- people who has obesity can be vulnerable to heart
diseases , strokes and diabetes. And the extra weight they
carry can causes the leg to be damaged , causing joint
problems especially on the knees.

+ Kwashiorkor - a common malnutrition due to the lack of

proteins in the diet. Its common amongst children age from 9
months - 2 years old after they stopped feeding on breast
milk.

+ Marasmus - a severe malnutrition due to the lack of proteins

and energy or calories. It cause child to be under weight ,
muscle wasting and looks emaciated.

+ Constipation - causes by lack of bre/roughage , causes

egestion errors. Alimentary canal does not work properly ,
food moves through the alimentary canal because of muscle
contraction ‘peristalsis’ . Without bulk it hard for it to work ,
can potentially risk of diseases such as Bowel cancer.
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Digestion

Ingestion - the taking of substances into the body through the

mouth.

Digestion - the breakdown of large molecules of insoluble food

into smaller molecules using mechanical and chemical
disgestions.

Absorption - the movement of digested food molecules

through the wall of the intestine into the blood.

Assimilation - movement of digested food molecules into the

cells of the body where they are used , becoming part of the
cells.

Egestion - the passing out of food the has not been digested.

+ mechanical digestion - breaking down of food into smaller

molecules by teeth .
+ Chemical digestion - breaking down of food into smaller
pieces using a chemical process.

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*starch —> amylase —>simple sugars

*proteins—> protease—>amino acids
*fats—> lipase—>fatty acids and glycerol

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 Teeth

Teeth help us in ingestion and mechanical digestion. Teeth can

bite o food , crush it , chew it or grind it into smaller pieces .
Giving it more surface area making it easier for enzymes to
break it down.

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Teeth contains two main structures the

root and the crown.
The crown is covered with the hardest
substance that is made by animal
called Enamel. Under the Enamel
theres the Dentine which works like a
bone and contains living cytoplasm.
Underneath of the dentine , in the
middle of the teeth theres the Pulp
cavity which contains nerves and blood
vessels which supply the dentine with
food and oxygen.

The root of the tooth is covered with

cement. It has bers growing out of it which attracted the tooth
to the jawbone but allow it to move slightly when biting or
chewing.
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Mammals has 4 types of teeth
+ Incisors - sharp-edged , chisel-shaped teeth at the front .
Used for biting o pieces of food.
+ Canines - pointed teeth at either side of the incisors used for
gripping food.
+ Premolars and molars - are the large teeth at the back of the
mouth , used for chewing , crushing food into smaller pieces
help with mechanical digestion.
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 Tooth decay is causes by having a lot of bacteria living in your
mouth most of which are harmless , but some bacteria grow
together with substances from your salvia forming a sticky lm
over our teeth called Plaque. It is soft and easy to remove . If
left to harden it forms a tartar which cannot be removed by
brushing

To get healthy teeth :

- dont eat too much sugar because this can lead to tooth
decay
- Use uoride toothpaste because uoride makes teeth more
resistant to decay.
- Make regular visit to the dentist.
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The alimentary canal

The alimentary canal is a long tube which runs from the mouth
to the anus. It is part of the digestive system. Which also
includes the liver and pancreas.

1. Mouth
Food is ingested through the mouth ,with help of the teeth it
breaks the food down into smaller pieces, it increases the
surface area . The tongue with the help of salvia and form it
into a bolus. The salvia from the salivary glands is made of
water , mucus and amylase.

2.Oesophagus
A long tube connecting the mouth to the stomach. When Food
enters the oesophagus wake like contractions will take place to
push the bolus of food down without relaying on gravity. The
entrance of the stomach from the oesophagus os guarded by
the sphincter muscle, this muscle has relaxes to let the food
pass through into the stomach.
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 3. Stomach
The stomach has strong muscular walls. The muscles
contracts and relaxes to churn the food and mix it with mucus
and enzymes, the mixture is called chyme. The stomach
contains goblet cells which secrets mucus. Stomach also
contains other cells that secrets protease enzymes and
hydrochloric acid. The main protease is pepsin breaking down
proteins into polypeptides. Hydrochloric acid also kills o
bacteria by denaturing enzymes in them. The food in the
stomach is stored for 1 or 2 hours before it let the chyme go
into the duodenum.

4. The small intestine

The small intestine is located between the stomach and colon.
Its about 5m long. The chyme travels from the stomach to the
rst part of the small intestine , the duodenum, in this part of
the small intestine Pancreatic juice is secreted from the
pancreas it contains many enzyme including amylase ,
protease and lipases which break down the chyme. Also with
the help of the bile which made in the liver secreted from the
gallbladder. Bile a yellowish green alkaline , watery liquid. The
bile with the process of emulsi cation it breaks the fats into
smaller pieces which increases the surface area making it
easier for the lipase to break it down.
Pancreatic juices does not work well in acidic condition ,
chyme containing hydrochloric acid. So with the help of
sodiumhydrogencarbonate NaHCO3 it neutralizes the acid
making a suitable pH for the activity of the enzyme in
pancreatic juice .
In the nal reconstruction of the carbonhydrates into glucose ,
proteins into amino acids and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
This happens in the lower region of the small intestine, called
the ileum. The ileum walls is covered by tiny projections called
Villi . Each is about 1mm long. These cells in the villi makes
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enzyme which breaks the food molecules into simpler forms.
These enzymes complete the digestion of food.
The carbohydrates enzymes maltase break down maltose to
glucose . Protease nish breaking down any polypeptides into
amino acids . Lipase completes the breakdown of fats to fatty
acid and glycerol.
After all the process happens Absorption starts to take place ,
the small molecules are small enough to the pass through the
walls of the small intestine to the blood stream.

5. Large intestine
Not all the food is been digested , the food enters the large
intestine passing the appendix to the caecum and nally into
the colon. The colon absorbs water and salt. However the
colon absorbs less water and salt than the small intestine. All
that left is indigested food full of bacteria , bre and dead cells.
This is called faeces , the faeces reaches the rectum triggering
the nerves and nally out through the anus. This is called
egestion .

**assimilation also takes place once the nutrients goes into he

blood stream. The nutrients then absorbed by the plasma and
then assimilates as part of the cells.

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 B6. Transport in plants

Plants needs substances like water , carbon dioxide to

photosynthesize and mineral ions.
Plants get its carbon dioxide from the air through di usion. The
gas di uses through the stomata into the air spaces and
mesophyll layer and nally into the plant’s cells.

Plants has 2 transport system which are the Xylem and

Phloem.
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+ Xylem - a transport system that transport water and mineral
salts from the roots to the stem and leaves.
- it is vessel like a long drainpipe.
- made of hollow , dead cells joined end to end. The
end of the cells disappeared so a long open tube is formed.
Xylem vessels are made from cellulose and lignin which is very
strong so xylem vessel help to keep plants upright. Xylem does
not contain cytoplasm or nuclei. Found on the inside
* wood is made almost entirely of ligni ed xylem vessel.
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+ phloem - transport system that transport food , minerals

( sucrose , amino acids ) from the leaves to di erent part of
the plant .
- phloem tubes are made of many cells joined end to
end. The cells are called seive tube elements containing
cytoplasm but no nuclei. They do not face lignin in their cell
walls. Cells in the phloem are alive , xylem are dead and
hollow.
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 Vascular bundle - are made up of group of xylem and phloem
tubes. Xylem are found on the inside , phloem are found on the
outside. In the centre there are vascular tissue whereas in
shoot vascular bundle are arranged in a ring near the outside
edge. They are also found in leaves , they help to support the
plant.
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Water take up
Plant roots has root hairs. They absorb mineral ions and water
from the soil.
-At the tip of the root theres a root cap. This is a layer of cells
which protect the roots as it grows further into the soil. The rest
of the root is covered by a layer of cells called the epidermis.

-Root hair does not last very long as the plant grows they will
die o and replaced by new root hair. Each root hair is a long
epidermal cell.
-Though they are tiny but there are many of them which means
the have a large surface area which increases the rate of which
they can absorb water and ions.

Water is taken up from the root hair cells through the process
of osmosis. The water is di used from the root hair cells down
its concentration gradient through the partially permeable cell
surface membrane. From there , water passes through the
cortex of the root into xylem vessel eventually reaches the
middle of the root. Then transport all the way up to parts of the
plant , leaves and stem. Then travels through the mesophyll
layer and into the cells of the plant.
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Transpiration - loss of water vapor from plants leaves by

evaporation of water at the surface of the mesophyll cells
followed by the di usion of water vapor through the stomata.
It take place because of Evaporation.

The mesophyll cells inside the leaf are covered with a thin- lm
of moisture. The lm of moisture evaporates from the cells and
this water vapor di uses out of the leaf through the stomata.
Water from the xylem vessels in the lead will travel to the
mesophyll cells by osmosis to replace it.

Transpiration stream - the moment of water from roots up

through the xylem vessels to the mesophyll cells and then out
through the stomata.
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The constant loss of water from leaves reduces the e ective
pressure at the top of the xylem vessel so water ows up them.
So its transpiration that is ultimately responsible for causing
water to move up through the plant.
Water moves down through the water potential gradient
through a higher water potential down to a lower water
potential gradient.
The low water potential in the leaves is caused by loss of water
vapor from the leaves by transpiration. This produce a ‘pull’
from above , drawing water up the plant.

Water molecules have a strong tendency to stick together. This

is called Cohesion. Xylem vessels , pull water up the whole
column of water stays together. Without cohesion the water
column would break apart and the whole system would not
work.

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Plant is adapted to help take up water by :
+ root hair cells has a large surface area , this increase the rate
in which water and ions is absorbed
+ The hollow , narrow pathway of the xylem makes the water
travel easier from the root to all part of the plant
+ Many airspace inside the leaf means that there is a large
surface area of wet cells from which water can evaporate into
the air. This increase the rate of evaporation , triggering
transpiration making the xylem draw more water
+ Stomata has openings this allow water vapor to di use easily
out of the leaf. This reduces the water potential inside the leaf
and encourage more water to evaporate form the surface of
the mesophyll layer.
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Measuring transpiration rates
The rate of which a plant takes up water depends on the rate of
transpiration - the faster the plant transpires the after it takes
up water.
The apparatus which can be used to compare rate of
transpiration is called a Potometer. It records how fas air/water
meniscus move along the capillary tube you can compare how
fast plant takes up water in di erent conditions.

Meniscus - the curve of the upper surface of a column of liquid

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Factors that a ects transpiration rate
+ temperature - the hotter the temperature the faster
transpiration rate , the molecules of water moves faster
+ Humidity - higher the humidity the slower it is the air is wet
+ Wind speed - faster the wind faster it is.
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Transport of manufactured food
Leaf makes carbohydrates by photosynthesis , they use
carbohydrates to make animo acids , oils and other organic
substances.
The food and sugar that the plant has made is transported in
phloem tubes. It carries from leave to parts of the plant that
needs it. This is called translocation. Sap contains a lot of
sugar particularly sucrose.

+translocation - the movement of sucrose and amino acids in

phloem , from regions of production (source ) to regions of
storage or regions of utilization in respiration or growth ( sink ).

Source - part of plant that animo acids and sucrose is being

translocated.
Sink - -part in which they are translocated to .

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