Chapter 6 animal nutrition

Balanced diet:
• the daily intake of food containing all the food groups in the right
proportions according to age, sex, work and climate

Age Gender Work Climate

1. babies need: 1. Female: Heavy workers need In cold countries
- Calcium and - Need more iron to more fats and people need more
vitamin D : For replace the blood carbohydrates to fats and
building their bones they lose during produce energy carbohydrates to
- Proteins: for rapid menstruation required for work produce enough
growth - during pregnancy energy to maintain
they need more their body
2. young children: calcium , iron , temperature and to
- Need high energy phosphate and form an insulating
food: for their proteins for growth layer under their
muscular activity of embryo skin to reduce heat
- need protein: for 2. males: loss
growth Need more protein
as they are more
3. old people need: muscular
- Roughages: to
activate peristalsis
movement
- Less fat: to avoid
precipitation in
blood vessels
causing heart
disease

1|Page
Malnutrition:
• Condition caused by eating an unbalanced diet (food lacking one or
more type of food or an increase in quantities of one or more types of
food).

effects of malnutrition:
1. Heart disease:
Result from excess fat which deposit on the inner wall of the arteries
narrowing it causing atherosclerosis (so less blood and oxygen reaches
the heart muscle leading to muscle attack).

2. Constipation:
Due to lack of fiber in the food intake.

3. Obesity:
-Eating too much fats and carbohydrates leads to their storage in their body
mainly in the form of fats causing increase in body weight.
-Having higher energy input than output.

Harms of obesity:

• Increase in liability to diabetes

• Increase risk of high blood pressure
• Coronary heart disease atherosclerosis
• Increase strain on bones and joints

To prevent obesity:
• Eat more roughages give sensation of fullness, so decrease feel of
hunger
• Decrease carbohydrates and fats intake
• Regular exercise

4. Starvation:
• Result from excessive lack of all types of food over a long period of time.
• Body will use stored glycogen in liver and muscles to obtain energy then
stored fats are used up, at last the body start to use protein in muscle.
2|Page
5. effect of protein-energy malnutrition:
kwashiorkor:
• caused due to lack of protein
• most common in children under 2 years (after they stopped breast feeding)
• children seen underweight or look fat due to mainly carbohydrates.
• if start eating protein they can grow normally.

Marasmus:
• Severe shortage in energy food causing the body mass to be lower than
60% of the normal.

3|Page
 Teeth
Each tooth consists of two regions:
1) Root: part of tooth embedded in gum
2) crown: part which can be seen in the mouth
Structure of tooth:
1. enamel:
• Outer layer of tooth
• Hardest tissue in the body
• Made of calcium salts
• Can be dissolved by acid

2. Dentine:
• Form major part of the tooth
• Harder than bone but not hard
as enamel
• Living region contain channel of
cytoplasm
• Made of calcium

3. pulp (cavity):
• Contains nerves for sensation
• Contain blood vessel to supply oxygen and glucose

4. cement:
• It’s a bone like substance, vitamin C is needed for it to be healthy.
• Have bundles of collagen fibers (periodontal membrane) growing out of
it to attach the tooth to the jaw bone and allow the tooth to move
slightly.

5. gum:
• Usually covers the junction between enamel and cement
• It reduces with age (gum recession)
4|Page
arrangement of teeth in human:

Incisors:
• Found in the front of the mouth
• 4 in each jaw
• They are sharp, edged, chisel shaped for cutting & biting of food

Canines:
• Found on either sides of the jaw
• 2 in each jaw
• More pointed to tear food

Pre molars
• 4 in each jaw, 2 each
side
• Each has 1 or 2 cusps
with large surface
area for grinding,
crushing & chewing
food

5|Page
Molars
• 3 at each side of the jaw (including
wisdom teeth)
• Are 6 in each jaw (including wisdom
teeth)
• larger and broader than premolars, has 4
or more Cusps. Crushing, grinding &
chewing of food

Wisdom teeth
• Teeth found at the back of the jaw
• Are so called because they grow later than others. (read only)

General function of teeth

1) Bite off pieces of food
2) Crush & grind food into smaller pieces (mechanical digestion) to give
larger surface area to facilitates swallowing of food and for faster
enzymatic action

6|Page
Two sets of teeth in life of human
A-Milky or deciduous teeth:
• when the child is about 5 months.
• the age of 18 to 20 months most children have a set of
20 teeth
• They began to fall when the child is about 7 years old,
to be replaced by permanent teeth

B. Permeant teeth.
• A32 teeth, 16 in each jaw
• By 18 years’ old most people have them all
• They are harder than milky teeth and cannot be replaced

Herbivores (plant eaters) spend more time eating more than

Carnivores (meat eaters)?
• Because plant leaves contain less fats and proteins therefore herbivores
need to obtain more Food to get enough protein and the required
energy as value of Carbohydrates is smaller than that of fats, also
because longer time is needed for chewing fibers that are found in
leaves

7|Page
What is meant by Dental decay?
• The dissolving of a hole in enamel and dentin by the effect of the acids
produced by certain bacteria due to anaerobic respiration while feeding
on the food remains in mouth especially Sugars
• Infection may reach pulp, where nerves are found this is very painful
• Infection can spread rapidly through the pulp, and may form an abscess
at the root of the tooth.

what is plaque?
• Mixture of bacteria, food and
saliva formed Sticky
substance called plaque.

• Plaque- is soft and easy to

remove at first, but if left it
hardens to form tartar which
can't be removed by brushing

8|Page
Prevention of Dental decay
1-Diet
• Don't eat too much sugars, but eat fibers for healthy gum
• Eat food Containing Calcium and vitamins C & D.

2- Hygiene
• brush your teeth regularly to remove plaque.
• Use dental floss to remove food remains and plaque between teeth.
• use tooth paste containing fluoride, as fluoride increase resistance of
teeth to acids

3-Medical
• visit dentists regularly for checkup or getting treatment for decay, gum
disease or plaque

9|Page
The Human Digestive System
1. The human alimentary canal includes:
a) mouth
b) pharynx
c) esophagus
d) stomach
e) small intestine
f) Large intestine
The associated organs or digestive gland:
a) Pancreases
b) liver
c) Salivary glands.
Definitions
1) Ingestion: Taking food and drink into the body through the mouth
2) Chemical digestion: Breaking down of large insoluble food molecules
into small soluble molecules t
3) mechanical digestion: Break down of large food particles into smaller
pieces without chemical change to increase surface area for faster
enzymes action.
4) Absorption: Movement of digested food through the walls of small
intestine into the blood or lymph
5) Assimilation of food: movement of digested food molecules into the cell
of the body where they are used and becoming part of the cells.
6) Egestion: Passing out of food that has not been digested as faeces
through Anus

10 | P a g e
11 | P a g e
The human alimentary
1) Epithelial cells: Small soft cells able to divide rapidly to replace the worn
out Cells due to friction with food.
2) Goblet cells: Secret mucus to reduce the friction between food and the
alimentary Canal.
3) Muscles: Mainly circular and longitudinal to contract and relax in
movement Called peristalsis

Peristalsis
• Rhythmic contraction & relaxations of
circular & longitudinal muscles which
makes the walls of the gut to push food
down the alimentary Canal

Mouth
It contains:
1-tongue
• Mix the food with saliva forming a bolus
• Necessary for Swallowing
• Moves the food between teeth
• organ of taste

2. Teeth
• For chewing (mechanical digestion) to increase surface area for faster
enzyme action

3. Salivary glands.
• There are 3 pains of Salivary glands in mouth that Secret Saliva

Components of Saliva
A-water & mucus:
• Lubricate the food make it easier to swallow
• Decrease friction between cheek and teeth
• Stick food particles together forming food bolus

12 | P a g e
B-Amylase enzyme
• Work in a neutral or slightly alkaline medium
• Breaks down starch into maltose

C- Bicarbonate or hydrogen Carbonate

• Creates a Suitable PH for amylase enzyme
• Protect the teeth against decay by neutralizing the acids produced by
bacteria.

2-Pharynx
• Common Pathway for food & air
• Contains soft palate which moves upwards to close the nasal cavity
during Swallowing preventing food from entering the nose
• Contains epiglottis to close trachea preventing food from entering air
passage

3-Esophagus
• Transfer food from the pharynx to stomach by peristalsis
• Effect of salivary amylase on starch continuous in Esophagus

4. Stomach
Controlled by two sphincter muscles:
A-Cardiac Sphincter.
• A ring muscle that prevent food from returning back into esophagus
while stomach is churning food

B-Pyloric sphincter
• A ring muscle that allow chyme to enter the duodenum

Mechanical digestion:
• The strong muscular walls of the stomach contract & relax to churn food
and mix it with enzymes and mucous forming chyme

13 | P a g e
Chemical digestion
• The inner lining at stomach secret gastric juice to digest proteins only

Components of gastric juice:

1. Hydrochloric acid
• To kill microbes
• Activate the enzyme pepsinogen into active form pepsin

2. Pepsinogen
Inactive enzyme:
• Activated by hydrochloric and to form pepsin
• Pepsin acts on protein to be digested into short poly peptide chains

3-Mucous
• Stomach walls contain goblet cells for protection of the inner lining from
being digested, otherwise ulcer develops.

NB (read)
• Renin is an enzyme found in Young babies to clot milk protein & So help
in retaining milk for longer time in Stomach for pepsin action

peptic ulcer or stomach ulcer

• This takes place due to excessive secretion of gastric juice and lack of
Secretion of mucus.
• Other causes: Smoking, alcoholic drinks and stress

14 | P a g e
15 | P a g e
5 Duodenum
• It is the first part of small intestine. It receives two secretions which are:
1) Bile from the liver
2) Pancreatic juice from pancreases
1. Bile
• Greenish yellow
• formed in the liver
• Stored in the gall bladder
• poured into duodenum through bile duct
• Not Considered as an enzyme as it does not act as a catalyst for
metabolic reaction

Its Components
A-Bile pigment
• Formed in the liver due to destruction of dead red blood cells. Excreted
with faeces giving its characteristic color

B-Bile salt
• Emulsify fats, (mechanical digestion) large fat molecules are broken into
smaller fat droplets to provide larger surface area for enzyme action

C-Bicarbonates
Neutralize the acidity of, chyme and to create a slightly alkaline medium for
enzymes action.

16 | P a g e
2- Pancreatic juice
• Secreted from pancreas poured into the duodenum through pancreatic
duct.

It Contains:
A-Bicarbonates
• Neutralize the acidity of chyme and to create a slightly alkaline medium
for enzymes action.

B-Pancreatic amylase
• Breakdown starch in to maltose.

C-lipase
• Breakdown of lipids into fatty acids & glycerol

D-Trypsinogen
• where it is activated by enterokinase enzyme (secreted by walls of
intestine) into active trypsin
• Trypsin digest proteins into smaller polypeptide chains

6. Small Intestine (ileum)

1) absorption of digested food into blood stream through villi
2) absorption of water, the small intestine absorbs 5-10 dm² per day
3) Most of food digestion takes place here as lining of small intestine
produce intestinal enzymes by intestinal glands.

Intestinal Secretion Contains:

1-lipase:
• Complete breakdown of emulsified fats into fatty acids & glycerol

2-Peptidases:
• Acts on polypeptides to be digested into amino acids

17 | P a g e
3-Maltase
• Acts on Maltose to be digested into glucose

18 | P a g e
Adaptation of ileum for absorption.
1) long to provide large surface area for absorption
2) Narrow to slow down the movement of food and this increase the rate
of absorption
3) Lined with villi which are adapted for absorption as follows:
a. lined with epithelial cells with thin walls (only one cell thick) to
decrease diffusion distance
b. contain digestive enzymes to complete digestion of food before
being absorbed
c. Contain blood Capillaries to transport the absorbed food
d. Contain lacteal vessels, to carry the absorbed fatty acids & glycerol
e. Epithelial cells of villi contain microscopic projections known as
microvilli to increase surface area of absorption
f. Contain a lot of mitochondria to produce energy required the
active uptake
4) Villi contain muscles to move villi so that it affect its surface area to be
exposed to more food and this increase rate of absorption of food. Also,
this helps movement of blood in blood vessels that carry digested food
and lacteal vessels that carry absorbed fatty acids & glycerol

mechanism of absorption of digested food

1. Amino acids, monosaccharides, water, minerals, water soluble vitamins
• pass through the epithelial cells of villi in to the blood capillaries.
• Blood capillaries of villi join together forming a blood vessel known as
hepatic portal vein.
• Hepatic portal vein carries the absorbed food to the liver, to the heart
through hepatic vein and finally to all body parts.

2. Fatty acids, glycerol Pass through

• The epithelial cells of villi to be carried lacteal vessels are parts of
lymphatic system.

19 | P a g e
NB
The blood supply to the liver is unusual
• most body organs receive oxygenated blood through an artery & the
blood leave this organ through a vein (BUT) The live receives blood
through two blood vessels an artery known as hepatic artery and also
through a vein known as hepatic portal vein

Functions of liver:
1-Detoxification:
• breaking down, toxic substances like alcohol to be excreted by the body
2- Production of heat due to its high metabolic activity
3- Deamination of excess amino acids:
• removal of nitrogen containing part of amino acids forming urea which is
excreted by the kidney and the remainder is stored as glycogen
4- Production of bile
5- Manufacture of plasma proteins such as fibrinogen and clotting factors
6- metabolism of glucose, amino acids Fatty acids & glycerol
7 - Regulation of glucose level in the blood
• If glucose level is high (above normal level which is to = 80-120mg/
100cm³)
• Pancreas secret the hormone insulin to Stimulate the liver cells to store
excess glucose into glycogen. Also, it makes cells absorb and use more
glucose in respiration
• If glucose level is how (below 80mg\100cm³) Pancreas secret the
hormone glucagon to stimulate live cells to breakdown glycogen into
glucose to be released into the blood

20 | P a g e
 Hepatic portal vein Hepatic vein

It joins small intestine & liver It joins liver & the inferior vena cava

Contains high concentrations of Contains lower concentration of

glucose glucose

Contains lower concentrations of

Contains high concentrations of
amino acids (because liver breaks
amino acids
down excess amino acids)

Contains lower concentrations of Contains higher concentrations of

urea urea as a result of deamination

No toxic material as liver break down

May contain toxic material the toxic material by a process known
as detoxification

Hepatic artery Hepatic vein

Branched from aorta Leads to inferior vena cava

Carries deoxygenated blood as liver

Carries oxygenated blood uses oxygen in production of energy
by the process of respiration

Has high blood pressure Has low blood pressure

Carries more urea as a result of

Carries less urea
deamination

Has thicker walls

Has thinner walls

21 | P a g e
Assimilation of absorbed food
• When the digested food is absorbed, it is taken to the liver through
hepatic portal vein where some are used by liver cells, some are stored
and some are Carried in the blood to all body cells.

utilization of glucose
• Some are used in respiration to provide energy for vital activities
• Excess glucose is Stored as glycogen in fiver and muscles.
• Excess glucose that is not stored as glycogen is converted into fat under
skin in adipose tissue.

utilization of amino acids

• Some are used to build up proteins, enzymes, Hormones or cell
Components
• Some are and in growth & tissue repair
• Excess amino acids can't be stored, but they are deaminated and
Converted into urea that is excreted by kidneys

Utilization of fatty acids and glycerol.

• Some are used to build up new structures such as hormones, cell
membranes
• Some are used to provide energy for Cells
• Excess are stored as fats under the skin the adipose tissue.

7. Large intestine
functions of large intestine
1-Main function is absorption of water from undigested food
(0.3 to 0.5 dm³ per day of water is absorbed from the colon)

2- Push the food remains outside the body by its peristaltic movement.
3- Certain bacteria which feed on remain producing vit. B and k

22 | P a g e
Cholera
• Loss of watery faeces It happens when not enough water is absorbed
from the faeces.
• Person with severe diarrhea can lose great amount of water & salt from
his body leading to dehydration
• Change in cells osmotic potential
• Reduce blood pressure
Type of pathogen: Bacteria
Name of pathogen: Vibrio cholerae

Mode of transmission:
-infection by a bacterium which cause the disease cholera. This
bacterium can be spread though water and food that has been
Contaminated with faeces from an infected person.
-In places where people are forced to have an unhygienic condition, such
as refugee camp, cholera can be spread very rapidly.

Treatment:
-Simplest & most effective way is to give oral rehydration therapy giving a
drink Containing water and small amount of salt& Sugar dissolved in it
-Antibiotic

Cause of action
Bacterium lives and breeds in the small intestine.
Produce toxin that stimulates the cell lining of the intestine to produce
chloride ions.
These ions accumulate in the lumen the small intestine, which causes lumen of
intestine to be of lower water potential than the blood
water moves by osmosis from blood to the lumen of intestine leading to
Diarrhea

23 | P a g e