Name:

Class:

Systems Science A
3: Go With the Flow
Topics/ Daily Outline:
Day A B Content: CW #: HW #:
1 1/25 1/26 Mole Relationships 1 1
2 1/29 1/30 Concentration of Solutions 2 2
3 1/31 2/1 Lab: Molarity of a Salt Solution -- --
4 2/2 2/5 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 3 --
5 2/6 2/7 Cell Structure and Function 4 3
6 2/8 2/9 Diffusion 5 --
7 2/12 2/13 Cell Transport System 6 4
8 2/14 2/15 Tonicity in Cells 7 --
9 2/16 2/20 Lab: Diffusion Across a Membrane -- 5
10 2/21 2/22 Quiz 1: CW 1 to 7 -- --
11 2/23 2/26 Biomolecules 8 6
12 2/27 2/28 Lab: Biochemical Compounds in Bananas -- --
13 2/29 3/1 Photosynthesis 9 --
14 3/4 3/5 Cellular Respiration 10 7
15 3/6 3/7 Lab: Yeast on the Job -- --
16 3/8 3/11 The Carbon Cycle 11 8
17 3/12 3/13 Review for Quarterly Assessment -- --
18 3/14 3/15 Quarterly Assessment -- --
19 3/18 3/19 Carbon Cycle One Pager -- --
20 3/20 3/21 Solubility 12 9
21 3/22 4/2 pH Scale 13 10
22 4/3 4/4 Lab: Titration of an Acid Solution -- --
23 4/5 4/8 Acid-Base Theories 14 --
24 4/9 4/11 Strong vs. Weak Acid-Base Solutions 15 --
25 4/12 4/15 Le Chatelier’s Principle 16, 17 11
26 4/16 4/17 Lab: Le Chatelier’s Principle -- --
27 4/18 4/19 Quiz 2: CW 12 to 17 -- --
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Homework:
 HW 1: Mole Calculations
 HW 2: Molarity Calculations
 HW 3: Cells and Organelles
 HW 4: Cell Membrane and Transport
 HW 5: Review for Quiz 1
 HW 6: Macromolecules
 HW 7: Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration Summary
 HW 8: Review for Quarterly Assessment
 HW 9: Solubility Curves
 HW 10: Titration Calculations
 HW 11: Review for Quiz 2

Graded Assignments:
Major Grades:
 Lab: Molarity of a Salt Solution Conclusion, due 2/6 (A) and 2/7 (B)
 Quiz 1: CW 1 to 7, 2/21 (A) and 2/22 (B)
 Lab: Diffusion Across a Membrane Conclusion, due 2/27 (A) and 2/26 (B)
 Lab: Biochemical Compounds in Bananas Conclusion, due 3/4 (A) and 3/5 (B)
 Lab: Yeast on the Job Conclusion, due 3/18 (A) and 3/19 (B)
 Lab: Titration of an Acid Solution Conclusion, due 4/12 (A) and 4/11 (B)
 Quiz 2: CW 12 to 17, 4/18 (A) and 4/19 (B)
 Lab: Le Chatelier’s Principle Conclusion, due 4/22 (A) and 4/23 (B)

Minor Grades:
 Biomolecules Reading Activity, due 2/23 (A) and 2/26 (B)
 Carbon Cycle One Pager, due 4/3 (A) and 4/2 (B)
 Lab Notebook Check, 4/5 (A) and 4/4 (B)
 Unit Packet, 4/5 (A) and 4/4 (B)
 2 to 4 Classwork Assignments, due dates per teacher

Homework Grades:
 Several randomly selected homework assignments, due dates per teacher

Quarterly Assessment:
 Cumulative, with emphasis on CW 8 to 11
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Drills
Date: Outcome:
1/25
1/26

Date: Outcome:
1/29
1/30

Date: Outcome:
1/31
2/1
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Date: Outcome:
2/2
2/5

Date: Outcome:
2/6
2/7

Date: Outcome:
2/8
2/9
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Date: Outcome:
2/12
2/13

Date: Outcome:
2/14
2/15

Date: Outcome:
2/16
2/20
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Date: Outcome:
2/21
2/22

Date: Outcome:
2/23
2/26

Date: Outcome:
2/27
2/28
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Date: Outcome:
2/29
3/1

Date: Outcome:
3/4
3/5

Date: Outcome:
3/6
3/7
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Date: Outcome:
3/8
3/11

Date: Outcome:
3/12
3/13

Date: Outcome:
3/14
3/15
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Date: Outcome:
3/18
3/19

Date: Outcome:
3/20
3/21

Date: Outcome:
3/22
4/2
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Date: Outcome:
4/3
4/4

Date: Outcome:
4/5
4/8

Date: Outcome:
4/9
4/11
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Date: Outcome:
4/12
4/15

Date: Outcome:
4/16
4/17

Date: Outcome:
4/18
4/19
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CW 1: Mole Relationships
The Elephant and the Methane Molecule
 One Elephant has one trunk and four legs.
 One methane molecule, CH4, contains one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.
 1 dozen = 12 items
 1 mole = 6.02x1023 items = Avogadro ’s Number

1. Considering elephants:
a. How many trunks are found in one dozen elephants?

b. How many legs are found in one dozen elephants?

c. How many trunks are found in one mole of elephants?

d. How many legs are found in one mole of elephants?

2. Considering a methane molecule:

a. How many carbon atoms are found in one dozen methane (CH4) molecules?

b. How many hydrogen atoms are found in one dozen methane molecules?

c. How many carbon atoms are found in one mole of methane molecules?

d. How many hydrogen atoms are found in one mole of methane molecules?

3. How is “a mole” similar to “a dozen”?

4. A mole is equal to 6.02x1023 items, which is a very large number. Why would chemists
want to use moles as the unit to count atoms in?
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Molar Mass
To find the molar mass of water, H2O:
1. Look up the mass of 2. Multiply each mass by 3. Add together.
each element on the the number of atoms.
periodic table.
H: 1.008 g/mol H: 2 × 1.008 = 2.016 2.016 + 15.999 =
O: 15.999 g/mol O: 1 × 15.999 = 15.999 18.015 g/mol

5. Find the molar mass of the following compounds.

a. Sulfur Dioxide

b. Lead(II) nitrate

c. Phosphoric acid

d. Ammonium sulfate
SSA Page 14 of 79
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Mole Calculations

6. Convert from 1.56x1030 particles of sodium chloride to grams of sodium chloride (use
the mole road map).

1.56×1030
particles NaCl

7. Complete the following on a separate sheet of paper to turn in. Write a plan using the
mole road map. Set up and solve the dimensional analysis. The answers are given so you
may check your work.
a. How many oxygen molecules are in 3.36 L of oxygen gas at STP? (Answer:
9.03x1022 molecules)
b. Find the mass in grams of 2.00x1023 molecules of F2. (Answer: 12.6 g)
c. Determine the volume in liters occupied by 14 g of nitrogen gas at STP. (Answer:
11.2 L)
d. Find the mass, in grams, of 1.00x1023 molecules of N2. (Answer: 4.65 g)
 SSA Page 16 of 79

CW 2: Concentration of Solutions
Lemonade Mixtures

1. Referring to the lemonade mixtures above…

a. What is the solvent?

b. What is the solute?

c. What is a dissolved lemonade mix particle represented by?

2. Circle the best choice to complete the sentences below.

a. Lemonade Solution 1 has (more/less/the same) volume of solution as Solution 2.
How do you know?

b. Lemonade Solution 1 has (more/less/the same) quantity of solute as Solution 2.

Describe how you know in terms of number of particles.
SSA Page 17 of 79
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3. Lemonade Solution 2 is concentrated, and Lemonade Solution 1 is dilute. Examine the
lemonade mixtures. List two ways to differentiate a concentrated solution from a dilute
solution.

4. A glass is filled with Lemonade Solution 2.

a. Is the solution in the glass the same concentration as the solution in the pitcher?

b. Does the solution in the glass contain the same number of solute particles as the
solution in the pitcher? If no, explain how your answer to part a can be true. Hint:
Consider both amount of solute and amount of solvent.

5. Do the terms “concentrated” and “dilute” provide any specific information about the
quantities of solute or solvent in a solution? Explain.
 SSA Page 19 of 79
Chemical Solutions

6. List the beaker numbers for the solutions that are “concentrated.”

7. What does the letter M stand for?

8. Calculate the ratio of the moles of solute to the liters of solution for each beaker.
moles of solute
liters of solution
Write your answers in the box next to each beaker.
a. How does the ratio compare to the molarity of each solution?

b. Write a complete sentence about how to find the molarity of a solution.

c. What type of solution will have a larger molarity value: dilute or concentrated?
 SSA Page 20 of 79
9. Considering beakers 3, 4, 5, which of the following is the same for all three beakers:
number of moles of solute, volume of solution, ratio of moles of solute to liters of
solution? (Circle one.)

10.How can beaker 5, with fewer moles of glucose, have the same molarity as beaker 4?

11.Calculate the molarity of a solution containing:

a. 1.5 moles of NaCl in 0.50 liters of solution. Show your work.

b. 0.40 moles of acetic acid in 0.250 liters of solution. Show your work.

12.Complete the following on a separate sheet of paper to turn in: A 0.5 M KCl solution
contains 74.55 g of KCl (molar mass 74.55 g/mol) in 2000 mL of solution.
a. Does the ratio 74.55 g KCl/2000 mL provide the correct molarity for this solution?
Explain.
b. What units do the amount of solute and the volume of solution need to be in to
obtain the molarity of 0.5 M?
c. Show work to confirm that the molarity of this solution is equal to 0.5 M KCl.
 SSA Page 21 of 79

CW 3: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Three Types of Bacterial Cells

1. The three bacterial shapes are referred to as coccus (sphere), spirillum, and bacillus
(rod). Label each diagram with the correct description.

2. What is represented by the small dots found in each of the bacteria cells?

3. What is the name of the outermost layer that forms a boundary around the outside of
each cell?

4. How is the DNA described in the cells and what does this mean?

5. What substance are all the internal structures floating in?

6. One of the bacteria has a tail like structure. What is this structure called? What might be
the purpose of this structure?
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Animal and Plant Cells

7. List three structural differences (other than shape) between an animal and plant cell.

8. Where do you find the DNA in each cell in Model 2?

9. Do both cells in Model 2 have a nucleus?

10.List the structure(s) that form the boundary of each cell.

11.What is the difference in the outermost boundary in a plant cell versus an animal cell?

12.Decide as a group which type of cells are more complex (bacteria cells or plant and
animal cells) and list at least three supporting reasons for your choice.
 SSA Page 23 of 79
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Word Meaning
Part
Pro Before
Karyon Nucleus or kernel
Eu True

13.What does the word prokaryote mean?

14.What does the word eukaryote mean?

15.Based on the definitions you made, label the cells in Model 1 and Model 2 as
prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

16.What structures are the same in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

 SSA Page 24 of 79

CW 4: Cell Structure and Functions

Functions for Life
1. Summarize the PMC model for living organisms.

2. Navigate to: https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/insideacell20/ by Googling

“learn genetics cells” and clicking on “Inside a Cell.” Complete the table below by
summarizing how each type of cell accomplishes each of the major cell functions.

Cell Function Animal Cell Plant Cell Bacteria Cell

A way to get
and use
energy

A container

A set of
instructions

A way to
read the
instructions

A way to get
rid of waste
Cell Structure and Function
3. Complete the table below using the notes posted around the room. Discuss in groups the determine if each structure is
found in prokaryotes or eukaryotes (plant or animal cell).

Eukaryotes
Purpose Structure Function(s) Prokaryote Anima
Plant
l

Cell Wall
Cellular
Boundaries
Cell
Membrane

Cellular
Control Nucleus
Center
Organelles
that Build
Ribosomes
Proteins

Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Golgi
Apparatus
 SSA Page 26 of 79

Eukaryotes
Purpose Structure Function(s) Prokaryote Anima
Plant
l

Vacuoles and
Vesicles

Organelles Lysosomes
that Store,
Clean Up,
and
Support Cytoskeleton

Centrioles

Organelles
Chloroplasts
Used to
Capture
and
Release
Mitochondria
Energy
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4. Complete the exit ticket: https://forms.gle/6vpNZ9N2q4VVutrn8.
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CW 5: Diffusion PhET Simulation

Diffusion is the random movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration. Concentration is a term used to describe the number of solute particles
in some amount of solvent. Concentrated means there is more solute in a solvent while if
there is less amount of solute you would describe it as diluted.

In this investigation, you will explore the process of diffusion and factors that affect the rate of
diffusion.

1. Access the PhET Diffusion simulation. You will use this to explore the process of diffusion
and factors that affect the rate of diffusion.

2. Review the controls available in the simulation.

3. Which of the tools in the simulation will be useful for measuring the rate of diffusion?
 Page 29 of 79
4. Set up the simulation to match the image below.

5. Describe the behavior of the particles once the divider is removed. Make sure to explain
how the particles move from one side to the other.

6. Do the particles ever stop moving? Explain.

7. How did you know when the simulation was ‘finished’. In other words, if you were to
time how long it took for the molecules to move from one side of the barrier to the
other, how would you know when to stop the time?
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8. Reset the simulation to match the image below. Click and drag the stopwatch next to
the Remove Divider button.

9. Remove the divider and start the timer. Stop timing when there are equal numbers of
blue particles both sides of the divider, recording the time in the table below. Repeat for
110, 150, and 200 particles, resetting the simulation in between.
Number of Particles on the Right Time to Equilibrium

50

100

150

200

10.How did the number of particles/molecules affect the rate of diffusion?

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11.Reset the simulation set the number of blue particles to 100. Change the initial
temperature (given in Kelvin) to 100 and find the time to equilibrium. Complete the data
table below. Repeat for 200, 300, and 400 Kelvin, resetting the simulation in between.
Temperature (K) Time to Equilibrium

100

200

300

400

12.How did the temperature affect the rate of diffusion?

13.Experiment with the other factors, making a general statement about how each will
affect the rate of diffusion.

Mass of
particles

Radius of
particles
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14.Reset the simulation to match the image below.

15.Notice that there is the same number of particles on the left as on the right. Predict if
there will be a net movement of particles. Explain your reasoning.

16.Remove the divider. Explain what happened to the particles.

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CW 6: Cell Transport System

The Selectively Permeable Membrane

1. What two biological molecules compose the majority of the cell membrane?

2. What is the difference between the position of the surface proteins and the membrane-
spanning proteins?

3. When a carbohydrate chain is attached to a protein, what is the structure called?

4. When a carbohydrate is attached to a phospholipid, what is the structure called?

5. What types of molecules are shown moving across the membrane?

6. Where exactly in the membrane do these molecules pass through?

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7. How does the concentration of the small molecules inside the cell compare to that
outside the cell?

8. Because particles move randomly, molecules tend to move across the membrane in
both directions. Does the model indicate that the molecules are moving in equal
amounts in both directions? Justify your answer using complete sentences.

Read This!
When there is a difference in concentration of a particular particle on either side of a
membrane, a concentration gradient exists. Particles move along the concentration gradient
from high to low concentration until a state of equilibrium is reached. At that point, there is
no more net movement in one direction, although the particles continue to move randomly
across the membrane, often called dynamic equilibrium. The net movement of particles
along the concentration gradient is called diffusion.

9. Which particles are moving by diffusion across the membranes shown?

10.Complete the following sentences by circling the correct answer.

a. Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from an area of (low/high)
concentration to an area of (low/high) concentration.
b. The molecules will continue to move along this (semi-permeable
membrane/concentration gradient) until they reach (diffusion/equilibrium).
c. Once equilibrium is reached, molecules will continue to move across a membrane
(randomly/in one direction).
 Page 35 of 79
Facilitated Diffusion

11.Which part of the cell membrane is shown in more detail above?

12.What is the gap between the proteins called?

13.Explain in detail what happened that allowed the glucose molecules to pass through.

Read This!
Some molecules, such as glucose, use gated channels to enter the cell; however, not all
channels are gated. Some channels remain permanently open and are used to transport ions
(like Na+ and K+) and water across the cell membrane.

14.Discuss with your group why the type of protein channel is called a gated channel.

15.To facilitate means to help. Why is this type of diffusion called facilitated diffusion?

16.The “tails” of phospholipids are nonpolar; therefore, they do not readily interact with
charged particles such as ions. How can this explain why facilitated diffusion is necessary
for the transport of ions such as Na+ and K+ across the cell membrane? In other words,
why would these ions not cross by simple diffusion?
 Page 36 of 79
Active Transport

17.Which part of the cell membrane is shown in more detail above?

18.What shape represents the substance being transported across the membrane?

19.List two binding sites found on the protein.

20.In which direction is the transported substance moving—from an area of high

concentration to low or from an area of low concentration to high? Explain.

21.ATP is a type of molecule that can provide energy for biological processes. Explain how
the energy is being used.

22.What happens to the ATP after it binds to the protein?

23.The type of transport shown is called active transport, while diffusion and facilitated
diffusion are called passive transport. Given the direction of the concentration gradient
in active and passive transport examples, explain why active transport requires energy
input by the cell.
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24.Use the table below to summarize the differences between active and passive transport
Active Passive Transport
Difference
Transport Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion
Requires energy input by the cell
Molecules move along a concentration
gradient (high to low)
Moves molecules against a concentration
gradient (low to high)
Always involves channel proteins
Molecules pass between phospholipids
Moves ions like Na+ and K+
Moves large molecules
Moves small nonpolar and polar molecules

25.Given the information in the graph, which type of cell transport would be best to move
substances into or out of the cell quickly?

26.Which type of transport would be the best if the cell needs to respond to a sudden
concentration gradient difference?

27.Why would the line representing facilitated diffusion level off as the concentration gets
higher, while the line representing diffusion continues to go up at a steady rate?

28.Why does active transport, on the same graph, start off with such a high initial rate
compared to diffusion and facilitated diffusion?
 Page 38 of 79

CW 7: Tonicity in Cells
Movement of Water Into an Out of Cells

1. The diagram above shows a cell bounded by a selectively permeable membrane. There
is a sugar solution inside the cell and outside the cell. (Circle the correct responses.)
a. Which side has a more concentrated sugar solution: inside/outside?

b. In a concentrated solution there is more/less water.

c. Which side of the membrane has a more dilute sugar solution: Inside/outside?

d. In a dilute solution there is more/less water.

2. Looking only at the diagram and key:

a. Which molecule(s) will be able to move through the membrane? Explain.

b. Which molecule(s) will NOT be able to move through the membrane? Explain.
 Page 39 of 79
Read This!
Molecules are in constant random motion. However, depending on the concentration of
molecules there can be an overall direction of movement, called the net direction.

3. Predict the net direction of movement of the molecule that crosses the membrane by
drawing an arrow into or out of the cell on the diagram.

4. How will the concentration of the sugar solution on each side of the membrane change
as this molecule moves?
a. On the inside it will become…

b. On the outside it will become…

5. Applying what you already know about diffusion and the random movement of
molecules, what will eventually happen to the concentration on both sides of the
membrane?

6. Using your responses to the questions above, summarize what your group has learned
so far about the movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane.

7. Osmosis is the term used for this movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane. Using your response to the previous question to develop a definition of
osmosis with your group.
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Osmosis in Plant and Animal Cells
Cell External solution is…
Type Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic
C: Lysed
A: Crenated B

Animal
Cell

D: Plasmolysed E F: Turgid

Plant
Cell

Read This!
The diagram above shows how cells can be altered due to osmosis. Water is constantly
moving across cell membranes by random motion. The relative amount of water movement
into and out of the cells is indicated by the size of the arrows. Note that both plant and
animal cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane, and that plant cells are
also surrounded by a permeable, rigid, outer cell wall.

8. For each question use diagrams A-F above. Which cells have:
a. Taken in water?
b. Lost water?
c. No change in water?
 Page 41 of 79
9. If osmosis is the movement of water from a high concentration of water (dilute solution)
to an area of lower concentration of water (concentrated solution), then:
a. Describe the concentration of the solution outside cells A and D (extracellular),
relative to the concentration of the solution inside cells A and D (intracellular).

b. Describe the concentration of the solution outside cells C and F (extracellular),

relative to the concentration of the solution inside cells C and F (intracellular).

c. Describe the concentration of the solution outside cells B and E (extracellular),

relative to the concentration of the solution inside cells B and E (intracellular).

10.Using the answer to the previous question, and the information below, develop
definitions for the following words.
Word Meaning
Part
Hyper Above
Hypo Below
Iso Same

a. A hypertonic extracellular solution is…

b. A hypotonic extracellular solution is…

c. An isotonic extracellular solution is…

 Page 42 of 79
11.What is different about a plant cell placed in a hypotonic solution and an animal cell?

12.What is similar about a plant cell placed in a hypertonic solution and an animal cell?

13.Considering the difference in the structure of plant and animal cells, do you think that if
water were continually added, the plant cell would eventually undergo lysis? Use
complete sentences to explain your answer.

14.Using the concept of osmosis, explain why water is sprayed over produce in a grocery
store and what change in appearance this might cause to the produce and why it is
desirable.

15.Plants that live near the sea can often get flooded with seawater. This causes them to
wilt. Using the principals of osmosis explain why this happens.

16.Complete the exit ticket: https://forms.gle/KgFabFn2cuoZyxCC6.

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CW 8: Biomolecules
Complete the reading about biological molecules. Access the Google form here:
https://forms.gle/1BhGFYinN7kNgAB49 and answer the questions using information from the
reading.

Many biochemical processes involve large organic compounds like carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, and nucleic acids. You will perform a variety of tests to identify these organic
compounds. Nucleic acids will be covered in System Science B.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain atoms of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the general formula (CH2O)n.
Based on the number of monomers they contain,
carbohydrates are organized into three major categories –
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are the least complex carbohydrate

molecules and are sometimes called “simple sugars”. These
molecules are the building block of more complex
carbohydrates. Glucose and fructose are monosaccharides
(Figure 1). Structure of monosaccharides can be in cyclic,
ring-type (Figure 1A). However, it is possible for the ring to
open to form a linear, chain-like structure that contains a
Figure 1: Monosaccharides
carbonyl group (C=O), as in Figure 1B.

The presence of the free carbonyl group enables monosaccharides to react to Benedict’s
solution, an alkaline solution of copper(II) sulfate. In the presence of a monosaccharide and
heat, the blue solution changes color from light green to yellow to orange.

Disaccharides are composed of two

chemically bonded monosaccharides.
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are examples
of disaccharides (Figure 2). Benedict's test
detects only those disaccharides that can
form a free carbonyl group, such as
maltose and lactose. Sucrose will give a
negative Benedict’s test because the free
carbonyl group is not present.
 Page 44 of 79
Figure 2: Examples of Disaccharides

Polysaccharides, the most complex of the carbohydrates, are compounds composed of many
monosaccharide molecules. In plants, polysaccharides are used for structural support (Figure
3) and for energy storage (Figure 4). Cellulose is a linear polysaccharide composed of glucose
units that makes tough fibers for building cell walls. Wood is primarily composed of cellulose.
The strength of cellulose enables trees to grow to great heights.

Figure 3: Beginning of a Cellulose Polymer

Like cellulose, starch is also composed of glucose units, but the bonds between the glucose
units are oriented differently (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Beginning of a Starch Polymer

Plants use starch polymers to store glucose for later use. Starch polymers can form as linear,
unbranched chains of amylose, or as branched chains of amylopectin. When the plant
requires energy, biochemical reactions release stored glucose to be used in cellular
respiration.

Starch can be identified using a solution of iodine–potassium–iodide (IKI). When this bright
yellow solution combines with amylose, the solution turns dark blue or blue-black. With
amylopectin, the solution turns red-brown.
 Page 45 of 79
Proteins
Proteins are large polymers formed from monomers called amino
acids (Figure 5). Amino acids are made from an amino group (NH2), a
carboxyl group (COOH), and a side chain (R) attached to a carbon
atom. The side chain (R) represents a carbon chain or ring. The
properties of an amino acid depend on the structure of its side chain.
Figure 5: Basic Structure of an Amino Acid

To form proteins, amino acids are joined by a dehydration synthesis reaction in which two
amino acids combine, forming a molecule of H2O. A hydrogen atom (H) is removed from the
amino group of one amino acid molecule and a hydroxyl group (OH) is removed from the
carboxylic group of another amino acid molecule to form H2O. A peptide bond forms that joins
the two amino acids into a dipeptide (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Dehydration Synthesis Reaction between Amino Acids to form a Dipeptide

Multiple peptide units can be linked to form longer peptides called polypeptides. A protein
consists of one or more polypeptide chains folded and coiled into a specific shape. These
biomolecules are necessary for metabolism and cell reproduction, and some act as enzymes.

The proteins and amino acids contained in foods are a source of prefabricated amino acid
molecules. Although some amino acids can be synthesized in the human body, there are
“essential” amino acids that must be supplied in prefabricated form from the diet. The nine
amino acids considered essential are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. The absence of any of these halts the
synthesis of certain proteins, resulting in disease and, in prolonged cases, death.

Biuret reagent is used to test for peptides containing three or more amino acids. Biuret
reagent is a solution containing sodium hydroxide and copper(II) sulfate; it will change color
from blue to purple in the presence of proteins.
 Page 46 of 79
Lipids
Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are classified together because they are
hydrophobic (nonpolar, insoluble in water). Lipids often contain long, nonpolar hydrocarbon
chains. As the name suggests, hydrocarbons are made of carbon and hydrogen atoms. If all
carbon atoms are joined by single covalent bonds, the hydrocarbon is saturated. If some
carbon atoms are joined by double bonds, the hydrocarbon is unsaturated. Subcategories of
lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.

Triglycerides are synthesized through dehydration synthesis reactions between a molecule of

glycerol and three fatty acids (Figure 7). The glycerol molecule contains the hydroxyl (−OH)
groups bonded to three carbon atoms. Fatty acids have a carboxylic acid group (−COOH)
bonded to a saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon chain.

Figure 7: Dehydration Synthesis of a Triglyceride

The structure of the fatty acid chains used to create the triglyceride determine the properties
of the triglyceride molecule. If all carbon atoms are joined by single covalent bonds, the
hydrocarbon is saturated. These fatty acid chains are straight, allowing triglyceride molecules
to pack together closely. If some carbon atoms are joined by double bonds, the hydrocarbon is
unsaturated. The double bonds of unsaturated fatty
acids cause the chain to bend, taking up more space.

Depending on the nature of their fatty acids,

triglycerides might be solid or liquid at room
temperature. If the fatty acids are mainly saturated, the
triglyceride will be a fat. Typically, fats are solid at room
temperature. If the fatty acids are mainly unsaturated,
the triglyceride will be an oil. Typically, oils are liquid at
room temperature. Animals usually store lipids as
saturated fats, while plants tend to store lipids as
unsaturated oils. Figure 8: Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
 Page 47 of 79
Phospholipids (Figure 9), contain a glycerol molecule bonded to a phosphate group (PO 4) with
two fatty acids tails. A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule, due to its hydrophobic fatty
acid tails and a hydrophilic head. The fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and cannot interact
with water; the phosphate-containing head is hydrophilic and interacts with water.

A bilayer of phospholipids forms the cell membrane. The phospholipids' fatty acid tails face
inside the membrane, away from water. The phosphate-containing head faces the outside of
the membrane, towards water. In this manner, cells can maintain an internal environment that
is different from the external environment.

Figure 9: Structure of a Phospholipid

Lipids can be indicated by a simple lab test using Sudan III fat stain. Sudan III is insoluble in
water but soluble in lipids. In a water-and-lipid mixture, Sudan III will be concentrated in the
oil layer and will stain it scarlet red. The staining of lipids with Sudan III is a physical process
that does not chemically alter the lipid molecules.
 Page 48 of 79

CW 9: Photosynthesis: What’s in a Leaf?

Leaf Sun-Catcher

1. List three things entering the leaf.

2. List three substances leaving the leaf.

3. Which substance is both entering and leaving? How is this substance changed between
its entry and its exit?

4. Veins are important structures that carry materials through the leaf. Label the central
vein in the leaf diagram.

5. Use the general equation for photosynthesis to answer the following questions.
a. What are the reactants for photosynthesis?

b. Where do these reactants enter the leaf?

c. What are the products of photosynthesis?

d. From where do the products leave the leaf?

6. Categorize all the components involved in photosynthesis as either matter or energy.

 Page 49 of 79
Cross Section of the Internal Structure of a Leaf

Read This!
Inside plant veins are two different types of tissues. Xylem carries water and minerals up
from the roots of the plant and phloem carries the sugars (nutrients) away from the leaf to
areas where the plant is growing or to storage areas in the plant.

7. How does the placement of veins help to carry out their function of transporting
materials to and from the leaf?

8. Remembering the function of chloroplasts, in which part(s) of the leaf is photosynthesis

taking place?

9. The green color of chloroplasts is due to a pigment in them that absorbs light energy.
Which layer inside a leaf gives the whole leaf its green color?

10.Through which layer(s) does light energy travel to reach the palisade mesophyll?

11.How would the cylindrical shape of the palisade mesophyll cells increase the amount of
photosynthesis that the leaf can carry out?

12.Suppose there were many chloroplasts in the cells of the upper epidermis. How would
that change the amount of sunlight reaching the chloroplasts in the palisade layer?
 Page 50 of 79
13.Considering its locations and your previous knowledge of the word, what do you think
might be the function of the epidermis?

Read This!
The cuticle covering the upper and lower epidermis of land plants is made of a waxy
substance that repels water in much the same way as wax on a paper cup.

14.What is the purpose of having a water-tight covering?

15.Look carefully at the lower surface of the leaf in the cross-section diagram.
a. What structure is found between guard cells?

b. How would you describe this structure?

c. How would this affect the ability of the leaf to retain water, especially in dry
conditions?

16.Suggest a way in which the stoma and guard cells arrangement might work to control
the amount of water that is leaving the leaf.

17.What gases might you find inside the air spaces?

18.When stomata (the plural of stoma) are closed, gases cannot enter or leave. Explain
how this would affect the plant’s ability to do photosynthesis.

19.How would the cuticle and stomata work together to maintain the leaf’s function?
 Page 51 of 79

CW 10: Cellular Respiration

Step 1: Glycolysis
Read This!
Glycolysis happens in the cytoplasm of cells and does not require the presence of oxygen. It
is said to be anaerobic. It is the first step used by cells to extract energy from glucose in the
form of ATP. ATP is cellar energy that can be directly used by cells.

1. What is represented by the hexagon? What is represented by the triangle?

2. How many carbon atoms (C) are there in one molecule of glucose?

3. How many carbon atoms (C) are there in one molecule of pyruvic acid?

4. What happens to glucose as it crosses the cell membrane into the cytoplasm of the cell?

5. This process is called glycolysis. How many ATP molecules are produced by glycolysis?

6. Hydrogen-carrying molecules are also produced during this process. What is the name
of these hydrogen-carrying molecules?

7. Does glycolysis occur inside or outside the mitochondria?

8. Thinking about the number of carbon atoms in glucose and in pyruvic acid, tell why
there is one molecule of glucose on the left side of the arrow and two molecules of
pyruvic acid on the right side of the arrow.
 Page 52 of 79
Step 2: Krebs Cycle

9. What happens to pyruvic acid during the Krebs cycle? Where in the cell does this occur?

10.Thinking again about the number of atoms of carbon in pyruvic acid, why are three
molecules of carbon dioxide produced?

11.Considering that glycolysis produces two pyruvic acid molecules per glucose molecule,
how many total CO2 molecules will be produced from the complete breakdown of each
glucose molecule? Support your answer.

12.Name the H-carrying molecules that are formed during the Krebs cycle.

13.Fill out the chart by looking back at the entire process of glycolysis and Krebs cycle to list
the total number of ATP’s and hydrogen-carrying molecules produced.
Process ATP NADH FADH2
Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle
st
(1 pyruvic acid)
Krebs Cycle
nd
(2 pyruvic acid)
 Page 53 of 79
Step 3: The Electron Transport Chain

Read This!
The inner mitochondrial membrane contains a series of carrier proteins that make up the
Electron Transport Chain (ETC). Electrons move along the ETC, providing energy to move
hydrogen atoms. The movement of hydrogen atoms dropped off by the NADH and FADH 2
leads to the production of large amounts of ATP. Those H’s had no value until they reached
the Electron Transport Chain.

14.What chemical molecule acts as the final H+ acceptor, and what molecule is formed as a
product of that acceptance?

15.The energy from the H+ is then transferred to an enzyme that initiates the formation of
what?

16.Formulate an explanation for why the Electron Transport Chain is an aerobic process
rather than an anaerobic process like glycolysis.
 Page 54 of 79
Read This!
Remember that glycolysis produces two pyruvic acid molecules per glucose molecule. It is
important to know that each NADH has enough energy stored in the hydrogens to make
about three ATP molecules while each FADH2 has enough energy stored in the hydrogens to
make about two ATP molecules.

17.Fill in the chart below to calculate the total amount of ATP produced from each glucose
molecule during aerobic respiration.
Process Number of ATP produced from Number of H carriers produced from
one glucose molecule one glucose molecule
Glycolysis NADH:
FADH2:
Krebs Cycle NADH:
FADH2:
Electron Transport
Chain
TOTAL ATP
PRODUCED

18.Look at the equation for cellular respiration and tell which stage of the process is each
molecule either used or produced.

19.Compare the ATP available to cells when oxygen is present versus when it is absent.
How might this help explain why brain and heart functions are so quickly affected when
a person cannot breathe?
 Page 55 of 79
Anaerobic Respiration

Read This!
If there is no oxygen present in the cell, only the first step of cellular respiration (glycolysis)
can occur.

20.List the final products of the breakdown of glucose if no oxygen is present.

21.Recall that two molecules of ATP are formed during glycolysis. Neither fermentation
processes shown above creates any more ATP. Knowing this, what would you predict
about the cellular energy available to organisms that carry out fermentation?

22.Research the relationship between overexertion of muscles and the formation of lactic
acid. How does this relate to muscle soreness after workouts or games?

23.What common foods involve the process of fermentation? Use your textbook or other
resource to make a list of the foods and the specific organisms used.
 Page 56 of 79

CW 11: The Carbon Cycle

Comparison of Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

1. Refer to the diagram above.

a. In what cell organelle does photosynthesis occur?

b. What are the three reactants needed for photosynthesis?

c. What are two products of photosynthesis?

d. In what cell organelle does cellular respiration occur?

e. What are the two reactants needed for cellular respiration?

f. What are three products of cellular respiration?

g. What four substances are recycled during photosynthesis and respiration?

h. What is the one component in photosynthesis that is not recycled and must be
constantly available?
 Page 57 of 79
Carbon Tracker
Watch the video here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nV6FDO_Pl5M and answer the
following questions.

2. Why is the data gained by carbon tracker an important?

3. Explain the annual increase and decrease of CO2 concentrations in the northern
hemisphere.

4. How does the amount of CO2 produced by humans compare to what ecosystems can
consume/ remove from the atmosphere?

Carbon Dioxide and the Carbon Cycle

Access the interactive resource here: https://shorturl.at/OSUVZ and answer the following
questions.

5. Where is carbon located on our planet, and how are these carbon reservoirs different
from each other?

6. Which reservoir of the carbon cycle changes the most and the quickest?
 Page 58 of 79

7. What are the main differences between the carbon flows 300 years ago and today?

8. Compare the Illustration View and the Chart View of carbon flows into and out of the
atmosphere. Why is it helpful to see two different models to explain the same situation?

9. Over the past 300 years, how did the role of the ocean change with respect to the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?

10.What has happened to atmospheric carbon dioxide level and global temperature since
the graph in the interactive, which was created in the year 2014?

Blackout Poem
Complete the blackout poem worksheet and turn in your poem.
Page 59 of 79
 Page 60 of 79

CW 12: Solubility
Three Solutions
The following data refers to three experiments in which solute is added to water in a beaker at
20 °C. The mixtures are stirred and then allowed to sit for three hours before measuring the
amount of solid that dissolves. Ten separate trials are conducted for each experiment. The
same solute is used in all three experiments.

1. Identify the variable(s) that were controlled among all three experiments.

2. What variable(s) were changed purposefully among the three experiments?

3. What experimental question can be answered by analyzing the data in the three
experiments? Use the words “solvent” and “solute” in your question.
 Page 61 of 79
4. In each of the three experiments, determine the point in the experiment that the
beakers became saturated. Draw a box around the entire section of data in each
experiment that represents saturated solutions.

5. Consider the data from the three experiments.

a. Which experiment shows the largest mass of dissolved solute in the saturated
solutions?

b. Propose an explanation for why the mass of dissolved solute changed among the
three experiments.

6. Would it be acceptable for a student to use Trial 2 from Experiment 1 to determine the
solubility of the solute? Explain your group’s answer in a complete sentence.

7. None of the experiments used 100 g of water. Use complete sentences to explain how
the ratio “grams of solute per 100 g H2O” can be calculated from the given data.

8. Use the data to calculate the solubility of the solute (at 20 °C) for all three experiments.
Show your work.
 Page 62 of 79
9. Circle the word or phrase that best completes each of the statements below.
a. When the volume of solvent increases, the mass of solute that can dissolve in a
saturated solution (increases/decreases/stays the same).

b. When the volume of solvent increases, the solubility of a solute at a given

temperature (increases/decreases/stays the same).

10.A student claims, “In Experiment 3, Trial 9, 18.0 grams of solute dissolves, whereas in
Experiment 1, Trial 9, only 3.6 grams of solute dissolves. Obviously, the solubility is
greater in Experiment 3.” With your group, devise a well-constructed response.

11.Calculate the mass of the solute used in Model 1 that is needed to make a saturated
solution in 140.0 g of water without leaving any solid solute at the bottom. Show your
work.
 Page 63 of 79
Solubility Curves

12.According to the graph, what is the solubility of Substance A at 30 °C?

13.Describe the trend in solubility for Substances A and B in Model 2 as temperature

increases.

14.If a saturated solution of Substance A in 100.0 g of water is cooled from 30 °C to 10 °C,

what mass of solid solute would crystallize out? Show your work.

15.If a saturated solution of Substance B in 50.0 g of water at 30 °C is warmed to 50 °C,

what mass of solute would need to be added to make the solution saturated again?
CW 13: The pH Scale
What is an indicator?
An acid-base indicator is usually a complex organic molecule. When added to a solution, the
structure of the indicator molecule changes in response to the amount of H + ions present. This
change causes the electrons to move differently within the molecule, causing the molecule to
absorb light differently. We observe this as a change in color.

1. Use the indicator chart below to determine what color each indicator would be in each
of the given pH levels.

pH 0 2 7 10 14
Thymol
Blue
Congo
Red
Methyl
Orange
 Page 65 of 79
What is pH?
pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is related to the amount of H +
ions present in a solution. In fact, the letters “p” and “H” stand for “power of hydrogen”. As
the concentration of H+ ions increases in a solution, the solution becomes more acidic, and the
pH level is lowered.

2. Label the pH scale below with the following: Acid, Base, Neutral, more H + ions, less H+
ions.

How do you calculate pH for a Strong Acid?

The term “pH“ is an abbreviation for “power of hydrogen”. This term was coined because
the equation above requires the concentration of the H+ ions. Concentration is measured by
molarity (M), or moles per liter. Brackets are also used to symbolize molarity.

pH=−log ⁡¿

3. For each of the following strong acids, determine the [H +] and the pH.
Acid [H+] pH
0.024 M HCl [H+] = 0.024 pH = -log(0.024) = 1.62

0.0035 M HNO3

2.82 x 10-4 M HBr

4. A solution of hydrochloric acid is made by adding 0.1823 moles of HCl to 5 L of solution.

Determine the concentration of the acid and the pH of the solution.
moles pH=−log ⁡¿
M=
liters
 Page 66 of 79
+
5. Write the [H ] in scientific notation. Then determine the pH.
[H+] [H+] in Scientific Notation pH
0.1 1 x 10–1 pH = –log(0.1) = 1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

6. Look at the data table in the previous question. What pattern do you notice about the
exponent when [H+] is written in scientific notation and the pH?

pH is measured on a logarithmic scale, similar to the

Richter scale used for earthquakes. When using a
logarithmic scale, each value is separated by a
factor of ten. For example, a magnitude 8
earthquake is stronger than a magnitude 6
earthquake by two factors of ten – meaning that an
8 earthquake is 100 times stronger than a 6
earthquake.

7. In the picture below, the shading represents

the amount of [H+] ion in solution.

a. What is the numerical pH difference between pH 5 and pH 7?

b. How many factors of ten is this?

c. What is the factor of ten difference between pH 5 and pH 9?

 Page 67 of 79
What is pOH?
Another way to describe the acidity or basicity of a solution is pOH. pOH is like pH, only the
concentration of OH- ions are used:
pH=−log ⁡¿ pOH =−log ⁡¿

pOH can also be found because the sum of pH and pOH is equal to 14:
pH + pOH=14

How do you find [H+] or [OH-] from the pH or pOH?

To solve for the [H+] or the [OH-], the log operator needs to be cancelled out using the antilog.
This results in the following equations:
¿ ¿

8. Using the information above, Complete the following table. Show all work in the space
below.
[H+] [OH-] pH pOH Acidic or Basic?

-8 [OH-] = 10–pOH pH = –log(1x10-8) 8 + pOH = 14

1x10 Basic
= 1x10–6 =8 pOH = 6

1x10–5

2.4x10–13

3.55x10–6
 Page 68 of 79

CW 14: Acid-Base Theories Notes

Questions Notes/ Practice
What are
Arrhenius
Acids?

What is a
hydronium
ion? Use the
picture to
explain.

What are
Arrhenius
Bases? Explain
using the
dissociation of
NaOH.

What does
chemical
equilibrium
mean?
 Page 69 of 79

What are
Brønsted-
Lowry Acids?

What are
Brønsted-
Lowry Bases?

Label the
Brønsted a. HSO4– + H2O H3O+ + SO42–
Lowry acid (A),
base (B),
conjugate acid
(CA) and b. HCO3– + H2O OH– + H2CO3
conjugate
base (CB) in
each reaction.
c. HPO42– + H2O H2PO4– + OH–

d. CH3NH3+ + H2O CH3NH2 + H3O+

e. HClO4 + H2O H3O+ + ClO4–

 Page 70 of 79
What does
amphoteric
mean? Why is
water
amphoteric?

When does
neutralization
occur?

SUMMARY:
 Page 71 of 79

CW 15: Strong vs. Weak Acid-Base Solutions

Learning Goals
● I can generate or interpret molecular representations (words and pictures) for acid/
base solutions.
● I can use representations of the relative amounts of particles in acid/ base solutions to
estimate strength and concentration.
● I can use common tools (pH meter, conductivity, pH paper) to describe the properties of
acid/ base solutions.

1. Access the Acid-Base Solutions PhET Simulation. Begin by clicking on “Introduction”.

Familiarize yourself with the controls.

2. As you play with each of the following, note what changes/ happens in the simulation.
a. Change the type of solution.

b. Select different views: molecules (with and without solvent) and graph.

c. Use the tools to check the pH of the solution (probe and pH paper).

d. Use the lightbulb tool (insert the leads in the solution). How does this compare for
strong versus weak acids and bases?
 Page 72 of 79
3. For an acid, what happens to the molecule when it is in a water solution? What
molecules are formed?

4. What is different about what happens to a weak acid molecule and what happens to a
strong acid molecule?

5. How do the representations (pictures) of a weak acid reaction differ from a strong one?

6. For a base, what happens to the molecule when it is in a water solution? What
molecules are formed?

7. What is different about what happens to a weak base molecule and what happens to a
strong base molecule?

8. How do the representations (pictures) of a weak base reaction differ from a strong one?
 Page 73 of 79
9. Select “My Solution” at the bottom of the screen. Familiarize yourself with the
simulation controls.

10. As you play with each of the following, note what changes/ happens in the simulation.
a. Toggle the solution from acid to base.

b. Change the concentration between 0.001 and 1. What are the units for
concentration used in the simulation?

c. Toggle the strength between strong and weak.

d. Change the strength of the weak acid.

 Page 74 of 79
11. Use the simulation to make a solution with a pH of 3 using a strong acid and then using a
weak acid. Complete the table below with your observations.
Solution Strong Acid Weak Acid

Desired
3.0 3.0
pH

[H+]

Graph

12. How does the amount of undissociated acid (HA) compare for both solutions?

13. How does the [H+] (same as [H3O+]) compare for both solutions?
 Page 75 of 79
14. Which solution, the strong acid solution, or the weak acid solution, shows an
equilibrium? Justify your answer.

15. Use the simulation to find the pH of a 0.10 M strong acid and the pH of a 0.10 M weak
acid. Explain this difference in terms of the amount of undissociated acid (HA) present in
each solution.

16. Complete the exit ticket: https://forms.gle/Uz22vpMe3C2NJZbw6.

 Page 76 of 79

CW 16: Le Châ telier’s Principle Notes

Question Notes/ Practice
What is a
stress on a
system at
equilibrium?

How do
changes in
concentratio
n affect
equilibrium?

How do
changes in
temperature
affect
equilibrium?

How do
changes in
pressure
affect
equilibrium?

How do
catalysts
affect
equilibrium?
 Page 77 of 79

CW 17: Le Châ telier’s Principle

1. Ms. Leffel is raising chickens for eggs (chickens are her 3rd favorite animal). How would
each of the following impact egg production? Explain.
Chickens + Food ⇌ Eggs
a. Feeding the chickens more

b. Removing eggs from the nest as they are laid

c. Adding more chickens <3

2. To melt ice, heat must be added to the ice in an endothermic process. How would each
of the following impact the formation of water? Explain.
Ice + Heat ⇌ Water
a. Add heat to the reaction

b. Remove heat from the reaction

3. The following shows the Haber process, which is used to create artificial fertilizer. Which
of the following could you do to increase the amount of ammonia (NH 3) made? Explain.
3H2(g) + 2N2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) + heat
a. High temperature or low temperature?

b. Add NH3(g) or remove NH3(g)?

c. High pressure or low pressure?

 Page 78 of 79
Predicting the Shift
4. For each of the following, determine if the stress applied to the reaction will cause a
shirt to the right (products) or to the left (reactants).
Equilibrium Equation Stress Applied Shift
gas ⇌ heat + liquid Add more gas
heat + solid ⇌ liquid Lower the temperature
heat + liquid ⇌ gas Remove heat
gas ⇌ heat + liquid Remove liquid
liquid ⇌ solid + heat Add liquid
liquid ⇌ solid + heat Add solid
solid + heat ⇌ liquid Remove heat
gas ⇌ solid + heat Add heat
liquid + heat ⇌ gas Remove gas

5. For the endothermic reaction below, which change(s) would cause the equilibrium to
shift to the right?
CH4(g) + 2 H2S(g) + heat ⇌ CS2(g) + 4 H2(g)
a. Decrease the concentration of H2S(g)
b. Increase the pressure on the system
c. Increase the temperature of the system
d. Increase the concentration of CS2(g)
e. Decrease the concentration of CH4(g)

6. What would happen to the position of the equilibrium when the following changes are
made to the reaction at equilibrium below?
2 SO3 (g) ⇌ 2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
a. SO2(g) is added to the system.
b. SO3(g) is removed from the system.
c. Ar(g) is added to the system.
d. Pressure is increased.
e. A catalyst is added to the system.
 Page 79 of 79
7. Predict the effect of decreasing the volume of the container for each of the following
(HINT: think about how the pressure changes when volume is decreased).
a. 2 H2O(g) + N2(g) ⇌ 2 H2(g) + 2 NO(g)

b. SIO2(g) + 4 HF(g) ⇌ SiF4(g) + 2 H2O(g)

c. CO(g) + H2(g) ⇌ C(s) + H2O(g)

8. Predict the effect of decreasing the temperature for each of the following.
a. H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ 2 HCl + 49.7 KJ

b. 2 NH3(g) ⇌ N2(g) + 3H2(g) ∆H = 37.2 KJ

c. CO(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO2(g) + H2(g) ΔH = -27.6 KJ

9. Complete the exit ticket: https://forms.gle/4DAKztpcNY4FjQxv7.