C.A.P.E.

CHEMISTRY LAB REPORTS: UNIT

1
Table of contents

Laboratory Activity Page Number Title Skills Assessed

Number

1 Types of crystals PD

2 Standardization of HCl MM

3 Shapes of molecules
(ungraded)

4
Redox titration (ungraded)

5 Enthalpy of HCl and Mg MM

and ORR

6 Oxidizing and reducing agents

(ungraded)

7 Displacement of metals
(ungraded)

8
Hess’ law AI

9 Identifying unknown ions

ORR

10 Cations (ungraded)

11 Anions (ungraded)

12 Solubility product (ungraded)

13

14 Implementation part A PD

15 Implementation part B AI
Lab #1

Date: 9/25/22

Title: Types of crystals

Problem statement: A chemistry student was provided with three unknown crystalline solids and
was told by the teacher that they are: granulated sugar, table salt and camphor balls. Plan and
design an experiment to help the students identify each solid.

Hypothesis: Camphor is solid A, sugar is solid B and table salt is sample B.

Aim: To confirm the identity of each crystalline solid that was provided.

Materials: Tripod stand, Bunsen burner, three small crucibles, matches, wire gauze, clock, tongs,
conductivity apparatus (carbon electrodes, ammeter, 6v power pack), three beakers.

Reagents: solid A, Solid B, Solid C, water

Method:

1. Attach the hose from the Bunsen burner to the gas source. Ensure that there are no leaks.
2. Place the tripod stand atop the Bunsen burner, along with the wire gauze. Switch the gas
on, and light the Bunsen burner.
3. Lbel each sample of crystalline solid: A, B and C. Measure out 5g of each solid.
4. Place sample A in one of the crucibles, and place it atop the Bunsen burner.
5. Allow the sample to be heated, for twenty minutes, recording what happens at
five-minute intervals.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for accuracy.
7. Repeat steps 4-6 with each sample.
8. Measure out 25 cm^3 of water three times.
9. Label three beakers A, B and C, measure out 5g of each solid and add a sample of each to
the corresponding beaker.
10. Use a mixing rod to dissolve each solid. Record the solubility of each solid in a table.
11. Test the conductivity of each solution, by placing the carbon electrodes within, and
tabulate the results.
12. Repeat step 11 thrice for accuracy
Data to be collected:

Sample Prior to After five After ten After After

heating minutes minutes fifteen twenty
minutes minutes

Table Displaying Expected Results After Heating Each Solid

Sample Solubility in water

Table Displaying Expected Results After Dissolving Each Solid

Sample Ammeter reading 1 Ammeter reading 2 Ammeter reading 3

Table Displaying Expected Results After Testing The Conductivity of Each Solid

Variables:

Manipulated: Each test that is conducted.

Controlled: The intensity of the flame, mass of sample used, volume of water used
Responding: Each solid’s reaction to the heat, each solids solubility in water, the reading on the
ammeter.

Use of data: The data gathered from the heating potion of this experiment will be used to
distinguish each solid. The solubility test will be confirmatory, as impurities may be present. The
third test–conductivity–will further prove the identities of each solid.

Expected results: The camphor will begin to sublime; the moment heat is added. It will have
completely sublimated after the ten-minute mark. This is due to relatively weak intermolecular
forces that exist within the structure of the camphor. The sugar will have melted, forming a
caramel brown substance by the fifteen-minute mark, as the heat is enough to break the
intermolecular forces, liquidizing it. The salt will not melt whatsoever, as the melting point of
salt exceeds what the Bunsen burner is able to provide; this is due to strong ionic bonds that exist
within the lattice of sodium chloride, which requires high amounts of energy to be broken.

The camphor will not dissolve in the water; furthermore, it will not conduct electricity as it is a
nonpolar compound. The sugar will dissolve in the water, as it is polar; it will however not
conduct electricity as it is not ionic and will not dissociate into ions. The salt will dissolve as it is
polar; it will conduct electricity, as it is ionic and will dissociate in solution.

Possible sources of error:

- The reading on the ammeter may be faulty due to a digital issue.

Limitations:

- The solids may have been impure.

Assumptions:

- Each crucible will be made of the same material.

- There are enough samples of each solid to conduct the experiment successfully.
Lab #2

Date: 08/11/22

Title: Standardization of hydrochloric acid using a standard solution of 0.05 mol/dm^3 sodium
carbonate

Apparatus: Burette, clamp and stand, funnel, 25 cm^3 pipette, pipette filler, electronic balance,
250 cm^3 volumetric flask, weighing bottle, spatula, stirring rod, white tile, conical flasks, 250
cm^3 beaker, dropping pipette

Chemicals: Hydrochloric acid solution, solid sodium carbonate, distilled water, methyl orange
indicator

Procedure:

1. 1.325g of sodium carbonate was accurately measured in a weighing bottle and was
transferred into the volumetric flask. The remaining solid was washed out with distilled
water. The washings were added to the volumetric flask.
2. Distilled water was added to the volumetric flask. It had been ensured that the sodium
carbonate had been fully dissolved. The volume was then made up to 250 cm^3. It was
shaken in order to be mixed.
3. A 25 cm^3 pipette was used to transfer 25 cm^3 of Na2CO3 (aq) to a conical flask. Three
drops of methyl orange indicator were added.
4. The hydrochloric acid was added to the burette; the initial level of acid was recorded and
titrated against the Na2CO3 solution. The final volume of acid was recorded, when the
end point had been reached.
5. The experiment was repeated twice more.

Results:

Titration 1 2 3

Final volume of acid 5.2 5.4 5.1

/cm^3

Initial volume of acid 0 0 0

/cm^3

Volume of acid used 5.2 5.4 5.4

/cm^3
TABLE DISPLAYING FINAL, INITIAL AND TOTAL VOLUME ACID USED IN EACH
TITRATION

Calculations:
- Concentration of Na2CO3 (aq)
Mass concentration= mass/ volume in dm^3
Mass concentration= 1.325g/ 0.025 dm^3
Mass concentration= 53 g/dm^3

Molar concentration= 0.05 mol/dm^3

- Equation for reaction

Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

- Concentration of HCl
0.05 mol/dm^3 * 0.025 dm^3= 0.00125 mols of Na2CO3
1:2 mole ratio
0.00125 * 2= 0.0025 mols

Average volume of acid used: 5.2+ 5.4+ 5.4= 5.3 cm^3

5.3/ 1000= 0.0053 dm^3
0.0025 mols/ 0.0053 dm^3= 0.471 mols/ dm^3

Discussion:
An acid–base titration is a method of quantitative analysis for determining the
concentration of an acid or base by exactly neutralizing it with a standard solution of base or acid
having known concentration. The purpose of a strong acid-strong base titration is to determine
the acid solution concentration by titrating it with a basic solution of known concentration, or
vice versa until there is neutralization.
In analytical chemistry, a standard solution is a solution containing a precisely known
concentration of an element or a substance. A known mass of solute is dissolved to make a
specific volume. It is prepared using a standard substance, such as a primary standard.
Sodium hydroxide is deliquescent (absorbs moisture from the atmosphere) solid. It
cannot be weighed accurately. Therefore, it is not possible to prepare a standard solution of
sodium hydroxide of accurately known concentration by weighing NaOH.
Comment on the concentration obtained

Possible sources of error/ limitations:

- Poor reaction time may have resulted in an overrun with the titration.
Conclusion:
The concentration of HCl was determined to be: 0.471 mols/ dm^3
Lab #3

Date: 09/11/22

Title: Shapes of molecules

Procedure:
A ball and stick molecular kit was used to construct the molecules:
1. CH3Cl
2. SO3
3. CH3-
4. SnCl2
5. PCl4+
6. NH2-
7. CH3+
8. H3O+
The total number of electron groups around the central atom was determined and the table below
completed.

Results:

Molecule No. of No. of bonded No. of non Shape of 2-d structure of

electron pairs bonded pairs molecule molecule
groups

CH3Cl 4 4 0 tetrahedral

SO3 3 3 0 Trigonal
planar

CH3- 3 3 0 Trigonal
planar
 SnCl2 3 2 1 Bent

PCl4+ 4 4 0 tetrahedral

NH2- 4 2 2 Bent

CH3+ 3 3 0 Trigonal
planar

H3O+ 4 3 1 Trigonal
pyramidal

TABLE DISPLAYING NUMBER OF ELECTRON GROUPS, NUMBER OF BONDED PAIRS,

SHAPE OF MOLECULE AND 2-D MOLECULE STRUCTURE

Discussion:
The valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a model used to predict 3-D
molecular geometry based on the number of valence shell electron bond pairs among the atoms
in a molecule or ion. This model assumes that electron pairs will arrange themselves to minimize
repulsion effects from one another.
For the tetrahedral molecules (CH3Cl,PCl4+,and H3O+), four electron pairs will result in
this shape. This shape enables the electrons in the molecule to be as far away from each other as
possible, while maintaining the bonds in the molecule. The bond angle that enables this is:
109.5°.
For the trigonal planar molecules ( SO3,CH3- and CH3+), three electron pairs will result
in this shape. This shape enables the electrons in the molecule to be as far away from each other
as possible, while maintaining the bonds in the molecule. The bond angle that enables this is:
120°.
For the bent molecules (SnCl2 and NH2-), this is due to the
presence of lone pairs, results in a bond angle slightly less than
109.5∘
For the trigonal pyramidal molecule, (H3O+). The shape of H3O+ is pyramidal as the 3
hydrogen atoms lie at three corners of oxygen as a triangle, and one lone pair of electrons on
oxygen attains pyramidal shape to H3O+.

Conclusion:
CH3Cl had four electron groups, four bonded pairs, zero lone pairs and a tetrahedral
shape. SO3 had three electron groups, three bonded pairs, zero lone pairs and a trigonal planar
shape. CH3- had three electron groups, three bonded pairs, zero lone pairs and a trigonal planar
shape. SnCl2 had three electron groups, two bonded pairs, one lone pair and a bent shape. PCl4+
had four electron groups, four bonded pairs, zero lone pairs and a tetrahedral shape. NH2- had
four electron groups, two bonded pairs, two lone pairs and a bent shape. CH3+ had three electron
groups, three bonded pairs, zero lone pairs and a trigonal planar shape. H3O+ had four electron
groups, three bonded pairs, one lone pair and a trigonal pyramidal shape.
Lab #4

Date: 13/01/23

Title: Redox titration

Problem statement: You are advised to take iron tablets to improve your blood count. At the
pharmacy, there are three brands available: each containing iron in the form of iron (II)
compounds. Plan and design an experiment which you can perform in your school laboratory to
determine which of the three tablets has the highest concentration of iron.

Hypothesis: Tablet A has the highest concentration of iron, tablet B has the second highest
concentration of iron and tablet C has the third highest concentration of iron.

Aim: To determine the supplement that has the highest concentration of iron (II).

Materials: burette clamp, burette, 25 cm^3 pipette, three conical flasks, measuring cylinder,glass
funnel, three beakers, three petri dishes, electronic balance, pestle and mortar, 250 cm^3
volumetric flask

Reagents: Iron supplement tablets of three separate brands, 0.02M potassium permanganate (VII)
solution,1.5 M sulfuric acid, distilled water

Method:
1. Acquire one tablet from each brand. Label each brand: A,B and C.
2. Crush the iron tablets using the pestle and mortar.
3. Transfer the crushed tablets to three petri dishes corresponding to their names and
measure their combined mass. Record this mass.
4. Empty the crushed tablets into three small beakers corresponding to their names and
reweigh the petri dish. Record this mass.
5. Measure out 100 cm^3 1.5 M of sulfuric acid thrice, then add to the three small beakers.
Stir to dissolve as much of the tablets as possible.
6. Filter solution A (to remove any undissolved solids) into a 250 cm^3 volumetric flask
with the corresponding name.. Rinse the beaker with more sulfuric acid and add the
washings to the volumetric flask. Make up to the mark with distilled/deionised water.
Place the stopper and shake.
7. Pipette 25.0 cm3 of solution A into a conical flask with the corresponding name.
 8. Using the potassium permanganate solution, thoroughly rinse the inside of a clean
burette. Allow the solution to exit the stopcock. Totally drain the burette. Rinse a
minimum of once more.
9. Clean and dry the outside of the burette before securing it to a clamp stand with the
appropriate burette clamp.
10. Fill the burette with potassium manganate(VII) solution, and record the initial volume.
Titrate the iron(II) solution with potassium manganate(VII) solution until the mixture has
just turned pink. Record the final volume.
11. Repeat step 10 twice more for accuracy.
12. Repeat steps 6-11 with brand B and C.

Data to be collected:

Brand: Mass with petri dish: Mass of petri dish: Mass of tablet:

C
TABLE DISPLAYING MASS OF IRON TABLET WITH PETRI DISH ,THE MASS OF THE
PETRI DISH ALONE AND THE MASS OF EACH INDIVIDUAL TABLET.

Titration: 1 2 3

Final volume of
KMnO4 /cm^3

Initial volume of
KMnO4 /cm^3

Volume of KMnO4
/cm^3 used
TABLE DISPLAYING FINAL, INITIAL AND TOTAL VOLUME OF KMnO4 USED FOR
BRAND A

Titration: 1 2 3

Final volume of
KMnO4 /cm^3
 Initial volume of
KMnO4 /cm^3

Volume of KMnO4
/cm^3 used
TABLE DISPLAYING FINAL, INITIAL AND TOTAL VOLUME OF KMnO4 USED FOR
BRAND B

Titration: 1 2 3

Final volume of
KMnO4 /cm^3

Initial volume of
KMnO4 /cm^3

Volume of KMnO4
/cm^3 used
TABLE DISPLAYING FINAL, INITIAL AND TOTAL VOLUME OF KMnO4 USED FOR
BRAND C

Variables:

Manipulated: Acidification of the solution, by the addition of sulfuric acid.

Controlled: The molarity of the potassium permanganate used.

Responding: The redox reaction that occurs between the iron (II) and KMnO4 (VII).

Use of data: The volumes obtained from this experiment, will be used in calculations, in order to
deduce the actual concentration of iron (II) each of the iron tablets. From there, the one with the
highest concentration will be determined.

Expected results: tablet b and c will take the longest time to react with the KMnO4 (VII),
thus, more volume of the KMnO4 (VII) will be used in the reaction. Tablet A will undergo
the reaction the fastest, and will use the least volume of KMnO4 (VII), due to it having the
highest concentration of iron (II). When the titration is complete, the solution in the beaker
will turn from purple to colourless. The potassium permanganate is purple because of the
MnO4- ion. The purple MnO4- ion changes to colourless Mn2+. MnO4- will be reduced
because it will have gained five electrons. Reduction is a gain of electrons. Reduction:
MnO4- + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O. The Fe2+ will be oxidised to Fe3+ because it will have lost
an electron. This is an oxidation reaction because there is a loss of electrons and an increase
in oxidation number. Oxidation: Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e-

Possible sources of error:

- The meniscus of the burette may be misread.

Limitations:
- Potassium permanganate decomposes when exposed to sunlight, which could therefore
affect the molarity of it.
- Poor reaction time of students, may result in the delayed turning of the stopcock.

Assumptions:
- The iron tablets have iron in the form of iron (II) sulfate.
- The potassium permanganate–for the most part–will maintain its molarity.
Lab #5

Date: 1/17/23

Title: Enthalpy changes

Aim: To determine the enthalpy of reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid

Apparatus: weighing bottle, thermometer, styrofoam cup, 50 ml pipette, pipette filler, balance,
stop watch, spatula

Chemicals: magnesium powder, 2.0 mol/dm^3 hydrochloric acid

Procedure:
1. An empty weighing bottle was accurately weighed. 0.55g of magnesium powder was
placed in the weighing bottle. The weight was recorded in Table 1.
2. 50 cm^3 of hydrochloric acid was pipetted into the styrofoam cup. It was stirred with the
thermometer, and the temperature was recorded every half minute for 2.5 minutes. The
readings were recorded in Table 2.
3. At 3 minutes exactly, all of the magnesium powder was added from the weighing bottle
to the plastic cup. The temperature was not recorded at the 3 minute mark.
4. The mixture was stirred thoroughly, and the temperature was recorded at half minute
intervals from 3.5 minutes to 10 minutes. The readings were recorded in Table 2.
5. The weighing with residual magnesium powder in the weighing bottle was reweighed
and the mass recorded was placed into Table 2.
Results:

Mass of empty weighing bottle /g 6.59

Mass of weighing bottle + magnesium /g 7.14

Mass of weighing bottle + residual 6.62

magnesium /g

Mass of magnesium placed in cup /g 0.52

TABLE 1: DISPLAYING MASS OF EMPTY WEIGHING BOTTLE, MASS OF
MAGNESIUM PLUS WEIGHING BOTTLE, MASS OF WEIGHT BOTTLE PLUS
MAGNESIUM AND MASS OF MAGNESIUM PLACED IN THE CUP
Time /min Temperature /°C

0.0 27

0.5 27

1.0 26

1.5 26

2.0 26

2.5 26

3.0

3.5 58

4.0 57

4.5 57

5.0 55

5.5 54

6.0 53

6.5 52

7.0 52

7.5 50

8.0 49

8.5 48

9.0 47

9.5 46

10.0 45
TABLE 2: DISPLAYING TEMPERATURE RECORDED IN HALF MINUTE INTERVALS
Estimated temperature at 3 minutes: 59°C

Calculations:
- Greatest temperature change produced during reaction:
= final temperature- initial temperature
=59°C-26°C
=33°C
- Moles of magnesium:
number of moles= mass of substance/molar mass
=0.52g/24.305 g/mol
=0.02 mols
- Heat energy produced:
Q= mcΔt
= 50g*4.3*(45-27°C)
=3870 J
- Enthalpy change:
= ΔHr= q/#of moles
= 3.87kJ/0.02 mols
=-193.5 kJ/mol

Discussion:
The standard enthalpy of reaction for a chemical reaction is the difference between total
reactant and total product molar enthalpies, calculated for substances in their standard states.
Magnesium and hydrochloric acid is exothermic as the temperature increases.In
exothermic reactions, more energy is released when the bonds are formed in the products than is
used to break the bonds in the reactants. Exothermic reactions are accompanied by an increase in
temperature of the reaction mixture.
A source of error in enthalpy change of reaction is usually unwanted heat loss to the
surroundings. This can be reduced by insulating the sides of the polystyrene cup and adding a
lid. An inaccurate temperature reading is another source of error, to avoid this, when the
thermometer is read , it should be vertical and the eyes should be level with the top of the liquid
in the glass tube. An inaccurate reading/ measurement of mass and volume of reagents used
could result in sources of error. To reduce the inaccuracy of the volume, below the meniscus of
the pipette should be read, with the pipette in a vertical position.

Conclusion: The enthalpy change of the reaction between HCl and Mg was determined to
be:-193.5 kJ/mol.
Lab #6

Date: 24/01/23

Title: oxidizing and reducing agents

Aim: To identify common oxidizing and reducing agents

Apparatus: test tubes, test tube racks, droppers

Chemicals: FeSO4 solution, K2Cr2O7/H+ solution, H2O2

Procedure:
1. Approximately 2 cm^3 of KI solution, FeSO4 solution, and H2O2, was measured out into
three separate test tubes.
2. H+/KMnO4 was added dropwise to each test tube and the changes were observed.
3. The results were recorded in a suitable table.
4. Steps 1-3 were repeated using H+/ K2Cr2O7 instead of H+/KMnO4.
5. Steps 1-3 were repeated using H2O2 instead of H+/ K2Cr2O7.

Results:

Test Observation Half equations

Potassium permanganate Initial: Colourless.

added to hydrogen peroxide
Final: effervescence and heat
were given off with a brown
hue. This reaction was
exothermic and O2 gas was
produced.

Potassium permanganate Initial: Colorless

added to iron (II) sulfate Final: There was a change
(FeSO4) from purple to colorless.

Potassium permanganate Initial: Colorless

added to potassium iodide Final: Became dark brown
upon addition of acidified
potassium permanganate.
TABLE DISPLAYING REACTIONS INVOLVING POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE AND
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, IRON (II) SULFATE AND POTASSIUM IODIDE

Test Observation Half equations

Potassium dichromate added Initial: Colourless.

to hydrogen peroxide Final: A dark purple solution
formed.

Potassium dichromate added Initial: Colourless.

to iron (II) sulfate Final: Light green yellow
solution formed.

Potassium dichromate added Initial: Colourless.

to potassium iodide Final: Bright yellow solution
formed.

TABLE DISPLAYING REACTIONS INVOLVING POTASSIUM DICHROMATE AND

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, IRON (II) SULFATE AND POTASSIUM IODIDE

Test Observation Half equations

Hydrogen peroxide added to No observable reaction.

hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide added to Initial: Colorless

iron (II) sulfate Final: A pale yellow solution
had formed.

Hydrogen peroxide added to Initial: Colorless

potassium iodide Final: A pale yellow solution
had formed.
TABLE DISPLAYING REACTIONS INVOLVING HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AND
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, IRON (II) SULFATE AND POTASSIUM IODIDE

Discussion:
A simple definition of oxidation is gain of oxygen by an element. For example, when
magnesium reacts with oxygen, the magnesium combines with oxygen to form magnesium
oxide. Magnesium has been oxidised.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

A simple definition of reduction is loss of oxygen. When

copper (II) oxide reacts with hydrogen, this is the equation for the reaction:

CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(l)

Copper (II) oxide loses its oxygen. Copper (II) oxide has been reduced.
But if we look carefully at the copper oxide/hydrogen equation, we can see that oxidation is also
taking place. The hydrogen is gaining oxygen to form water. The hydrogen has been oxidised.
We can see that reduction and oxidation have taken place together.
Oxidation and reduction always take place together. We call the reactions in which this
happens redox reactions. Redox reactions are very important. For example, one redox reaction –
photosynthesis – provides food for the entire planet, and another one – respiration – keeps you
alive. Both are redox reactions.We can also define reduction as addition of hydrogen to a
compound and oxidation as removal of hydrogen from a compound. This is often seen in the
reaction of organic compounds.
There are two other ways of finding out whether or not a substance has been oxidised or
reduced during a chemical reaction: electron transfer, changes in oxidation number.

Sources of error/ limitations: The test tubes possibly had residue from other experiments, which
may have altered the results.

Conclusion: H2O2 is simultaneously a reducing and oxidizing agent; KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 are
both reducing agents.
Lab #7

Date: 31/01/23

Title: Displacement reactions using metals and solutions of metals

Aim: To determine the relative reducing ability of some metals by placing them into solutions
containing metal cations.

Apparatus: Test tubes, test tube racks, spatula

Chemicals: Metal A, B, C and D; solution of nitrates of metals A, B, C and D.

Procedure:
1. A small sample of metal A, B, C and D were placed into three test tubes.
2. 2cm^3 of each metal nitrate was placed into each test tube (the corresponding metal with
the nitrate was not combined.)
3. The original appearance of the contents were observed. The test tubes were shaken to
mix contents, and left for thirty minutes. The observable reactions were noted.

Observations:

Nitrate used Observations

Nitrate B Solution becomes cloudy white, and effervescence seen. Vapour was given off,
and effervescence gets more vigorous as time progresses.
Off white residue remains by the end of reaction.

Nitrate C Initially colourless, as time progresses effervescence becomes more vigorous.

Vapour given off. Slower than the first reaction.

Nitrate D Small effervescence. As time progresses, effervescence becomes more

vigorous. The colour changes from light blue to green. Vapour given off. By the
end of the reaction, the solution was yellow.
Table Displaying Notable Observations After The Addition Of Metal A To Nitrates B,C and D.

Nitrate used Observation

 Nitrate A Grey colour, with no effervescence initially. Solution remained the same as time
progressed.

Nitrate B Grey colour, with no effervescence initially. Solution remained the same as time
progressed.

Nitrate D Grey colour, with no effervescence initially. Solution turned from blue to
colourless as time progressed.
Table Displaying Notable Observations After The Addition Of Metal C To Nitrates B,A and D.

Nitrate Used Observations

Nitrate A No visible reaction.

Nitrate C Colourless to pale yellow.

Nitrate B No visible reaction.

Table Displaying Notable Observations After The Addition Of Metal D To Nitrates B,C and A.

Nitrate used Observations

Nitrate C No visible reaction.

Nitrate A No visible reaction.

Nitrate D No visible reaction.

Table Displaying Notable Observations After The Addition Of Metal B To Nitrates A,C and D.

Interpretation:

Discussion:

Assumptions/ limitations/ sources of error:

Conclusion:
Lab #8

Date: 11/02/23

Title: Calculation of enthalpy changes using Hess’ law

Aim: To calculate the heat of decomposition of calcium carbonate by determining the enthalpies
of reaction of calcium carbonate and calcium oxide with hydrochloric acid.

Apparatus: Styrofoam cup, thermometer, balance, 24cm^3 pipette, pipette filler, petri dish

Chemicals: 2.0 mol/dm^3 hydrochloric acid, calcium carbonate powder, calcium oxide

Procedure:
1. The petri dish was used to measure *** of calcium carbonate. The mass of the petri dish
and sample were recorded.
2. 50cm^3 of hydrochloric acid was measured and added to the styrofoam cup. The
temperature of the acid was recorded using a thermometer.
3. The contents of the petri dish were emptied into the acid, it was stirred as the solid was
added. The greatest steady temperature obtained was recorded–that being the final
temperature.
4. The empty petri dish was re-weighed for any remaining residue.
5. Steps 1-3 were repeated using *** of calcium oxide.

Results:

CaCO3 + HCl CaO + HCl

Mass of tube + sample (g) 9.08 8.38

Mass of tube + residue (g) 7.31 7.12

Mass of sample used (g) 1.76 1.26

Initial temperature (°C) 27 27

Final temperature (°C) 29 40

 Temperature change (°C) 2 13
Table Displaying Mass of tube + sample, Mass of tube + residue, Mass of sample used , Initial
temperature, Final temperature, And Temperature Change of CaCO3 + HCl and CaO + HCl.
Calculations:
Enthalpy of reaction with calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid:
q= mc△T
q= 50g * 4.2 * 2°C
q= 420 J or 0.42 kJ

# of moles of CaCO3 used

= 40 + 12 + (3*16)= 100 g/mol
# of mols= mass of substance/ molar mass
= 1.76/100
= 0.0176 moles

△H = q/# moles
= 0.42 kJ/ 0.0176 moles
= -23.86 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of reaction with calcium oxide and hydrochloric acid:

q=mc△T
q= 50g * 4.2 * 13
q= -2730 J or 2.73 kJ

Number of moles of CaO used

CaO= 40 + 16 = 56 g/mol
# of moles = mass of substance/ molar mass
= 1.26g/ 56 g/mol
=0.023 mols

△H = q/ # of moles
= 2.73 kJ/ 0.023 moles
= -118.7 kJ/ mol
Equation for thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate:
CaCO3(s)→CaO(s)+CO2(g)
Enthalpy cycle which connects the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate with
both reactions observed:

Enthalpy of decomposition of calcium carbonate

△Hr + △H2 = △H1
△Hr = △H1 - △H2
△Hr = -23.86 - (-118.7)
△Hr= + 94. 84 kJ/ mol

Discussion:
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that ‘energy cannot be created or destroyed’.
This is called the First Law of Thermodynamics. This law also applies to chemical reactions. The
total energy of the chemicals and their surroundings must remain constant. In 1840 Germain
Hess applied the Law of Conservation of Energy to enthalpy changes. Hess’s law states that ‘the
total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is independent of the route by which the chemical
reaction takes place as long as the initial and final conditions are the same’.
In this experiment, it was necessary to use excess HCl to ensure that all solid that had
been used was dissolved, this would've prevented HCl from being the limiting reagent.
Instead of measuring the decomposition of CaCO3 in the experiment, Hess' triangle was
used to calculate it. This is because direct measurements of heat loss are impossible. It would be
impossible to measure the heat loss while simultaneously adding heat to a substance. Instead of
using a Hess' triangle, a lot of heat would be lost if it were measured directly, making an accurate
enthalpy impossible to obtain.

Sources of error/ limitations:

- The thermometer may have lacked a certain degree of accuracy, which may have
prevented it from detecting subtle changes in temperature, thereby reducing the accuracy.
- Heat may have been lost to the surroundings, which may have resulted in
miscalculations.
Conclusion:
The heat of decomposition of CaCO3, was determined to be: + 94. 84 kJ/ mol.
Lab #9

Date: 28/02/23

Title: Identification of unknown ionic compounds

Aim: To identify an unknown ionic compound containing two cations and one anion, using
simple chemical tests.

Apparatus: Bunsen burner, test tubes, test tube rack, dropping pipettes, test tube holder.

Chemicals: Solution of unknown ionic compound, NaOH (aq), NH3 (aq), HCl (aq), AgNO3 (aq),
BaCl2 (aq), KI (aq), Al powder, CaOH2 (aq), litmus paper, distilled water.

Method:
The solution was divided into eight (8) portions. Each portion was used for the following tests:
1. A small amount of NaOH (aq) was added then added in excess to approximately 1cm^3
of unknown solution. The reaction was observed. The liquid was then warmed and tested
with damp red and blue litmus paper to identify the gas given off.
2. The NH3 (aq) was added in excess.
3. HCl (aq) was added.
4. BaCl2 (aq) followed by HCl (aq) was added.
5. AgNO3(aq) was added.
6. Ca(OH)2(aq) was added.
7. NaOH(aq) and Al powder were added and heated. The gas produced was identified.
8. KI (aq) was added.

Results:

Test Observations Inferences

NaOH added dropwise, in
excess, heated then tested
with red and blue litmus.
A white precipitate formed, NH3 present. Thus, NH4+
which dissolved when NaOH ions must be present.
was added in excess. Upon
heating, the gas produced
changed red litmus blue.

NH3 added in excess. A white precipitate formed, Al3+, Pb2+ or Zn2+ ions may
 which remained (insoluble) in have been present.
excess.
Al3+ or Pb2+ may have been
present.

Al3(aq) + 3NH3(aq) +
H2O(l)→ Al(OH)3(s) +
NH4 (aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) +
2H2O(l)→ Pb(OH)2(s) +
2NH4 (aq)

HCl added. No observable reaction Al3+ ions present.

occurred.

BaCl2 and HCl added.
White precipitate formed,
which was insoluble when
HCl was added.
SO4 2-, SO3 2- or CO 2- may
be present.
SO4 2- ions present Ba2+
(aq) + SO4 2- → BaSO4

BaSO4 is insoluble in HCl.

AgNO3 added. No observable reaction No halides present.

occurred.

Ca(OH)2 added. A white precipitate formed. CO3 2- ions are present.

NaOH added, heated with
aluminum powder.
The Colorless solution
became cloudy white.
Effervescence was given off,
which turned red litmus paper
blue.
NH3 gas formed, therefore
NH4+ ions must be present.
NH4+(aq) + OH(aq) →
NH4OH(aq)

NH4OH(aq)→NH3(g) +
H2O(l)

KI added. No observable reaction Al3+ present.

occurred.
Table Displaying The Observations From The Different Test To Identify Two Cations and one
Anion Present In An Unknown Solution
Conclusion:
There are two cations and one anion present, which were: Al3+, NH4+, and SO4 2-.

Implementation

Date: 04/02/23

Title: Implementation part A (proposal)

Problem statement: Commercial brands of bleach are more expensive than the bulk wholesale
bleach. However, Patricia thinks buying commercial brands is a waste of money because the
amount of sodium hypochlorite is the same in the bulk wholesale bleach. Plan and design an
experiment to test Patricia’s claim.

Hypothesis: Both brands of bleach contain the same amount of sodium hypochlorite.

Aim: To determine which type of bleach (commercial or bulk) contains a higher concentration of
sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), through redox (iodometric) titration.

Materials: electronic balance, burette clamp, burette, volumetric flask (100 mL), erlenmeyer
flask, pipette filler, pipette (25 mL), stirring rod, measuring cylinder, beakers, droppers,

Reagents: commercial bleach, bulk bleach, starch solution (1%), H2SO4 (1 M), sodium
thiosulfate solution (0.1 M), potassium iodide solid

Method:

1. Thoroughly clean the burette and rinse with distilled water. Hang the buret assembly
using the burette clamp.
2. Rinse the burette with a small amount of 0.1M sodium thiosulfate solution.
3. Dispose of the rinse solution down the sink.
4. Fill the burette with 0.1M sodium thiosulfate solution. Drain a small amount of the
sodium thiosulfate solution so that all air bubbles are flushed from the burette tip.
5. Record the initial burette reading in a suitable table.
6. Transfer 5.00mL of the commercial bleach solution to a 100mL volumetric flask and
dilute to 100mL using distilled water. Place the stopper and mix the solution thoroughly.
7. Weigh out approximately 2g of KI(s). This reactant will be in excess and does not require
careful measurement.
 8. Transfer 25.00mL of the diluted bleach solution into a clean 250mL Erlenmeyer flask
using the 25mL pipette.
9. Add approximately 25mL of distilled water to the Erlenmeyer flask and add the KI(s).
Mix thoroughly until the KI is dissolved.
10. Add a few drops of H2SO4 to the Erlenmeyer flask while swirling the solution. Avoid
breathing the fumes. The solution should turn dark-yellow/brown from the production of
I 3− complex ions in the solution.
11. Titrate the analyte with the 0.1M Na2S2O3 until the iodine color becomes light yellow.
12. Add one full dropper pipet of starch solution to the Erlenmeyer flask. The solution should
turn blue as the starch-iodine complex forms.
13. Continue titrating the analyte until a single drop of Na2S2O3 solution causes the blue
color to disappear. Record the final burette reading.
14. Repeat the titration 2 additional times, preparing a fresh analyte for each trial.
15. Repeat steps 1-14 for the bulk bleach.

Data to be collected:

Titration 1 2 3

Final volume of
Na2S2O3/ cm^3

Initial volume of
Na2S2O3/ cm^3

Volume of Na2S2O3/
cm^3 used

TABLE DISPLAYING FINAL, INITIAL AND TOTAL VOLUME OF Na2S2O3 USED FOR
COMMERCIAL BLEACH

Titration 1 2 3

Final volume of
Na2S2O3/ cm^3

Initial volume of
Na2S2O3/ cm^3

Volume of Na2S2O3/
cm^3 used
TABLE DISPLAYING FINAL, INITIAL AND TOTAL VOLUME OF Na2S2O3 USED FOR
BULK BLEACH

Variables:

Manipulated: Bulk and commercial bleach.

Controlled: Volume of reagents used: bleach, potassium iodide, sulfuric acid, sodium
thiosulphate and starch solution

Responding: The color change that occurs when the end point of reaction is reached.

Use of data:
The amount of hypochlorite ion present in a solution of bleach can be determined by an
oxidation-reduction titration using iodine and thiosulfate ions. The volume of sodium thiosulfate
that reacted with the analyte will be used to determine the mole ratios, and thus the molar
concentration of the bleach, and the percentages. This will be used to deduce whether the
commercial or bulk brand is more concentrated with sodium hypochlorite and which is more
worth the cost.

Expected results:
The iodide will be oxidized [2I−(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e−] due to its low reduction potential
relative to other oxidizing agents. In acidic solution, hypochlorite ions oxidize iodide ions to
form iodine, I2. The iodine that forms is then titrated with a standard solution of sodium
thiosulfate.
When the acidified iodide ion is added to hypochlorite ion solution, the iodide is oxidized
to iodine:2H+ (aq) + ClO− (aq) + 2I− (aq) →Cl− (aq) + I2 (aq) + H2O(l)
Iodine is only slightly soluble in water. It dissolves very well in an aqueous solution of iodide
ion, in which it forms a complex ion called the triiodide ion. Triiodide is a combination of a
neutral I2− molecule with an I− ion. The triiodide ion is yellow in dilute solution, and dark
red-brown when concentrated: I2(aq) + I−(aq) → I3−(aq). When the triiodide is titrated with a
standard solution of thiosulfate ions, which reduces the iodine back to iodide ions:
I3−(aq) + 2S2O32−(aq) → 3I−(aq) + S4O62−(aq)
During this last reaction the red-brown color of the triiodide ion fades to yellow and then to the
clear color of the iodide ion. Addition of starch to a solution that contains iodine or triiodide ion
forms a reversible blue complex. The disappearance of this blue colored complex is a sensitive
method of determining the end-point.
The higher the volume of sodium thiosulphate used, the higher the concentration of
sodium hypochlorite. This is due to the fact that a greater volume of sodium thiosulphate would
be needed to react with the sodium hypochlorite. The type of bleach that requires less sodium
thiosulphate has a lower concentration of sodium hypochlorite.
From the calculations, it will be deduced that both brands of bleach will have the same
concentration of sodium hypochlorite.
Possible sources of error:
- The meniscus of the burette may be misread.
- The experiment was limited due to one brand of commercial bleach.
- Poor reaction time may result in a slightly overrun titration.

Limitations:
- The accuracy of the glassware used to measure the solutions, such as pipettes and
burettes, can act as a limitation in titration experiments. Although glassware can be
calibrated, these calibrations are not always completely accurate. Because of the
complexity of the burette's structure, another limitation is the possible existence of an
airlock in the burette's stopcock, which can interrupt the flow of the added solution,
causing inaccurate results.

Assumptions:
- The concentration of the bleach may be too high, and thus it must be diluted. If not
diluted, too much reagent must be added to conduct the titration successfully.
- Both bulk bleach and commercial bleach contain the same amount of NaClO.
Implementation

Date: 19/03/23

Title: Implementation part B

Introduction: It is proclaimed that both bulk and commercial bleach contain the same quantity of
sodium hypochlorite; however, based on the problem statement, an experiment was to be devised
to verify this claim. The most suitable method to conduct this experiment was: iodometric
titration.

Aim: To determine which type of bleach (commercial or bulk) contains a higher concentration of
sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), through redox (iodometric) titration.

Materials: electronic balance, burette clamp, burette, volumetric flask (100 mL), erlenmeyer
flask, pipette filler, pipette (25 mL), stirring rod, measuring cylinder, beakers, droppers,

Reagents: commercial bleach, bulk bleach, starch solution (1%), H2SO4 (1 M), sodium
thiosulfate solution (0.1 M), potassium iodide

Method:

1. The burette was thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with distilled water. The burette assembly
was hung by use of the burette clamp.
2. The burette was rinsed with a small amount of 0.1 sodium thiosulfate solution.
3. The rinse solution was disposed of down the sink.
4. The burette was filled with 0.1 M sodium thiosulfate solution . A small amount was
drained from the tip. To ensure removal of the air bubbles.
5. The initial burette reading was recorded in a suitable table.
6. 5.00 mL of the commercial bleach was measured, and placed into a 100 mL volumetric
flask. The flask was then filled to the 100 mL mark with distilled water. The stopper was
placed, and the solution mixed thoroughly.
7. 2g of KI(s) was weighed out
8. 25.00 mL of the diluted bleach was transferred into a clean 250 mL Erlennmeyer flask,
using a 25 mL pipette.
 9. 25 mL of water followed by the KI(s) was added to the Erlenmeyer flask.
10. A few drops of H2SO4 was added to the erlenmeyer flask, whilst simultaneously being
swirled—the solution formed a dark yellow hue.
11. The analyte was titrated with the 0.1M sodium thiosulfate solution, until the iodine had
become light yellow.
12. A pipette dropper of 1% starch solution was added to the erlenmeyer flask, which
resulted in a dark blue black hue.
13. The titration was then continued with the analyte until a single drop of sodium thiosulfate
caused the blue hue to become colorless. The final burette reading was tabulated.
14. The titration was repeated two additional times, an analyte freshly prepared for each trial.
15. Steps 1-14 were repeated with the bulk bleach.

Results:

Titration 1 2 3

Final volume of 9.3 18.5 27.8

Na2S2O3/ cm^3

Initial volume of 0.0 9.3 18.5

Na2S2O3/ cm^3

Volume of Na2S2O3/ 9.3 9.2 9.3

cm^3 used
TABLE DISPLAYING FINAL, INITIAL AND TOTAL VOLUME OF Na2S2O3 USED FOR
COMMERCIAL BLEACH

Titration 1 2 3

Final volume of 5.3 10.7 16.3

Na2S2O3/ cm^3

Initial volume of 0.0 5.3 10.7

Na2S2O3/ cm^3

Volume of Na2S2O3/ 5.3 5.4 5.4

cm^3 used
TABLE DISPLAYING FINAL, INITIAL AND TOTAL VOLUME OF Na2S2O3 USED FOR
BULK BLEACH

Calculations:
1. Average volume used Commercial bleach:
= 9.3 + 9.2 + 9.3
= 27.8/3
=9.26 cm^3

Average volume used Bulk bleach:

= 5.3 + 5.4 + 5.4
= 16.1/3
=5.36 cm^3

2. Number of moles of Na2S2O3 used to titrate against commercial bleach:

= molar concentration * volume used
= 0.1 mol/ dm^3 * 0.00926 dm^3
=0.000926 mols

Number of moles of Na2S2O3 used to titrate against commercial bleach:

= molar concentration * volume used
= 0.1 mol/ dm^3 *0.00536 dm^3
=0.000536 mols

3. Balanced equation for reactions taking place:

- 2H+ (aq) + ClO− (aq) + 2I− (aq) →Cl− (aq) + I2 (aq) + H2O (l) reduction of
ClO-
- 2S2O3 2- + I2 → S4O62- + 2I- oxidation of S2O3 2-

4. Mole ratio between sodium thiosulphate and sodium hypochlorite

1 mol of ClO- = 1 mol of I2
2 mols of s2O3 2- = 1 mol of I2
Thus the mole ratio is 1:2

5. Number of moles of NaClO present commercial bleach: