Today’s class: Finish sexual selection + Genetic Drift

Please pick up TWO poker chips –

If time, we will start Gene Flow
for activity later in class

Please return poker chips at the end

of class.

https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolution-101/mechanisms-the-processes-of-evolution/genetic-drift/
(https://science.ubc.ca/students/events/meet-your-major)
 AI and Biotechnology Advances in
Healthcare Panel
When: March 1st, 5 - 6:30 PM
Where: LSC, Room #1002
Speakers include: Dr. Pieter Cullis, Professor Carl de Boer, Dr. Manish Sadarangani, and more!

RSVP HERE!
NEW
We are currently looking for UBC students to join our team as volunteers to help facilitate and organization of
our competition weekend. If you are interested in joining our team, please fill out the following google form
by March 2nd: https://forms.gle/vkygFteSk95HTSYC7. If you would like more information on these positions,
please reach out to our head director via email (ghsokhanran@gmail.com)
 Midterm #2 – Review Session
Will be held on Friday, March 8th @ 5pm

On Zoom (Office Hours link)

Will be recorded

Slides will be made available

 Midterm #1

If you lost a mark for Q1.6 – G1 phase, AND you said that this cell was not possible
because the DNA was condensed, please submit your exam for a regrade.

Please note – in the genetics unit (e.g. Worksheet #2, etc.) the DNA was always drawn
as chromosomes for clarity.

For the final exam (we will test on genetics again), please try to avoid making
assumptions if possible (e.g. the circle in Q1.6 not represent nuclear membrane).
 Quiz 6 – Evolutionary Mechanisms

I have changed the due date to Sunday, March 10th as we won’t discuss
mutations until Tuesday’s class.

Still due this Sunday night @ 11 pm:

Quiz 5: Natural Selection
Quiz 7: HWE

Also note:
1. I will be releasing the Sit Spot Project Evolution Worksheet today (due Wednesday, March 20th)
2. I will be releasing Unofficial Teaching/Exam #1 Feedback Survey on Friday (1% of grade) – you will have until
Sunday, March 10th to complete survey.
3. Evolution practice questions are released.
• I will be posting one previous exam for practice next week
• I need to double check that the old cut off point for HWE is not lingering (if you see 0.01 – that is wrong)
 Last class – started Sexual Selection

Specifically, we started discussing intraspecific selection- male:male direct competition for

mates
 Not testable – female-female interactions
From Dr. Irene Ballagh (UBC, BIOL155) – in mice raised for research purposes, if a male has
fertilized multiple females at the same time, the alpha-female can delay implantation of her
eggs by a few days.
- outcome of this delay is the other females give birth a few days earlier
- the alpha female will kill these offspring before giving birth to her own pups
- the females without pups, who are lactating, will then help to feed the alpha female’s
pups.
 Males may compete indirectly
• Males evolve ornaments and/or behaviours that signal to the other males
their “fighting ability”.

Gorillas:
https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/nat16.sci.lisci.fiddler/claw-size-and-competition- Reveal teeth when yawning.
behaviors-of-male-fiddler-crabs/
Large body size.
 “Sneaky” tactics males use to avoid direct combat

https://www.livescience.com/48212-animal-sex-
snakes.html
https://www.whatsthatbug.com/2009/07/01/mating-ebony-jewelwings-

4/
Spoon-shaped penis
to scoop out
competitors sperm
– damselflies and
dragonflies
http://ccsbio.blogspot.ca/2010/04/i-googled-dragonfly-penis-so-you-
dont.html http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/male-snakes-invest-lots-energy-producing-
mating-plugs/
Other indirect tactics

Tiger salamander males mimic the female’s

dance to attract a mate, then destroy the
genetic material of the other male.

Drosophila melanogaster males marks a female with the

scent of a male to make her less attractive to other
males.
Intersexual selection -Mate choice

https://news.yale.edu/2018/01/09/evolved-illusion-blackest-black-gives-bird-paradise-edge
 What would make one male more enticing to a female than another male?

Twohypotheses:

1. A male that signaled to the female that they were better at providing direct
benefits to a female and their offspring than another male would be more
enticing.

2. A male that signaled to the female that they would provide better indirect
benefits (i.e. good genes), that would maximize the fitness of the female’s
offspring.
 1) Direct benefit

Males can signal that they would

provide benefits such as:
- Resources (e.g. food, shelter)
- Protection
- Parental care
- Parasite avoidance
- Fertility

64
Males demonstrate that they can provide resourcesto the
female by bringing gifts (nuptialgift)
Female lions preferentially
matewith males with dark
manes:

Dark manes in lions

indicate:

> older age(survivor)

>higher testosterone levels

(more aggressive, fighting
ability)
- good protector

Source
 2) Indirect benefit (e.g. good geneshypothesis)
• The male’s phenotype is an indicator or advertisement for good genes/high fitnessthat
can be pass to the female’s offspring.
• This usually means the signal has to bear some cost (e.g. energetics) to themale.

https://sonurai.com/bingwallpapers/166 70
 Display their good genes, e.g. look fabulous!

- Healthy – no parasites
- Good immune system
- Non-damaged DNA, etc.
 Good genes - dance

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BnLE-G1hVAE
Male pufferfish video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ee3GIPoLe6c
 3 requirements for evolution by sexual selection
Almost identical to requirements for evolution by natural selection (ecological).

1. There must be variation in phenotype amongst individuals in the population (e.g.

male dancing ability).

2. The variation must be heritable.

3. There must be differences in fitness associated with differences in phenotype – BUT

this time it is differences in mating opportunities and/or differences in the genetic
quality of the offspring.
 Learning Objectives – Sexual Selection
• Know the 3 requirements for sexual selection

• If given a scenario involving mate choice, be able to explain why females might
prefer to mate with a male with one phenotype over another; and be able to link
the female’s choice to both male and female fitness.
 Organism of the Day – Pacific Spiny Lumpsucker
Eumicrotremus orbis
• Small “ping pong ball”-size fish (2.5-7.6 cm)
• Range - Alaska to Washington State to
Coastal Asia and Northern Japan
• Habitat
- rocky intertidal areas to a depth to a depth
146 m
- Frequently found in eel grass beds at night
- Found in the water off Stanley Park .

https://environment.uw.edu/news/2022/02/this-tiny-coastal-fish-wears-a-toothy-coat-of-armor/
• Not the best swimmers (they are shaped like a
basketball ).

• They lack a gas bladder that many fish have for

buoyancy

• Their pelvic fin have been modified into an adhesive

adhesive pad to attach to rock and other substrates
(e.g. macroalgae).
https://www.vichighmarine.ca/pacific-spiny-lumpsucker/
• Helps them combat water movement due to
tides/waves.

https://twitter.com/CASeaweedFest
Unlike most fish – the Pacific Spiny Lumpsucker
does not have scales

Instead their body is covered with plate-like

“spikes” (females have more than males).

Helps protect the fish (e.g. if they hit a rock).

They are not born with these structures; they

develop with age.

Made from enamel (same material as teeth); so,

lightweight.

Source: NY Times 2022

https://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcen http://www.seaotter.com/marine/research/eumicrotremus/orbis/html/orbis3.jpg.html
ter/species/pacific_spiny_lumpsucker

Different body colours:

• Males tend to be red
• Females tend to be green or light brown

Males tend to be smaller than females (sexual

dimorphism)
 Red male Pacific Spiny Lumpsuckers – also glow
bright red under U.V. light and blue light. And,
the ventral disc grows bright yellow.

The red glow of the males matches the red glow of

encrusting algae in their nesting areas (so camoflague?)

The glowing disc may act to attract females in close

range.

Source: NY Times 2022

 Artificial Selection (not testable for my sections)
People, instead of nature, select which individuals get to reproduce and pass their
alleles onto the next generation (i.e. there is a goal unlike in natural selection).
 Evolutionary Mechanism #2 - Genetic Drift
Evolution at random
Genetic drift refers to changes in allele frequencies in a population over time due to due
to random differences in survival and/or reproduction.

By chance, some “lucky” individuals leave behind a few more descendants (and genes)
than other “unlucky” individuals, which affects allele frequencies in the next generation.

Changes in allele frequencies are not a function of whether the alleles are harmful or
beneficial. Not predictable
 Chance and survival – a personal story
Karen Luepke/Tenaglia/Hoksbergen, my field partner
Dan Tenaglia, incredible botanist and cyclist
on Missouri Herp Team in 2001

http://www.missouriplants.com/Dans_page.html http://webhome.auburn.edu/~santosr/karen_tenaglia.htm
 Genetic Drift
Genetic drift occurs in ALL populations (including the human population) that are not infinite
in size (so, all real populations).

Genetic drift has a particularly strong effect on small populations (see figure with n=20
below - larger the fluctuations in allele frequencies with each generation.
- Over generations, genetic drift tends to result in a decrease in genetic variation.
- Small populations tend to lose genetic diversity more quickly than larger populations.

Allele lost or fixed within 10 generations www.wikipedia.org

When population is INFINITE in size
 Genetic Drift – population size

https://faculty.washington.edu/herronjc/a1/
 If you think like a mathematician - genetic drift is the equivalent of
sampling error
Sampling error is said to occur when a
sample does not represent the
population that the sample was taken
from.

If you flipped a coin twice and got 2

heads, would you be surprised?

Does the head side have a selective

advantage over the tail side?

Outcome just due to chance

https://pixabay.com/illustrations/coin-flipping-coin-hand-flip-flick-5822271/
If you flipped a coin 1,000 times, what
frequency of head’s would you expect?
 Two special opportunities for genetic drift to occur

1. (Population) Bottleneck Event

2. Founder Event

Both events involve a change in population size.

Important - please know that allele frequencies in a population can

change due to chance events with no change in population size.
 Population Bottleneck Event
Where the name bottleneck event comes from

Generation 1 Generations later

Generation 2

• A population bottleneck occurs when a population’s size is drastically

reduced for at least one generation (usually due to a catastrophe such
as a wildfire, flood, etc.).
 Example: Bottleneck event - with a change in allele frequencies
New: Gene pool refers to the combination of all
the genes (including alleles) present in a
population or species.

Generation 1 Generations later:

Generation 2

• Generation 1: 3 alleles with equal frequencies (blue = 0.33, purple = 0.33, red =0.33)
• By chance, some individuals with blue and purple phenotypes survived the fire, e.g. they were in a small area
that did not burn (they were lucky).
• All individuals with a red phenotype perish (bad luck!)
• Outcome: Allele frequencies in generation 2 are very different, blue = 0.66, purple = 0.33, red=0.00
• Genetic drift has occurred
• Reduction in genetic variation (fewer genetic differences amongst individuals).
 Example 1 – generations later

Generation 1 Generation 2 Generations later:

• The population may eventually grow back to previous size generations later.
• However, allele frequencies in the future population are very different from
the allele frequencies in the original population (blue = 12/15 or 0.80, purple
alleles = 3/15 = 0.20).
 Real life example of a population bottleneck event – northern
elephant seals
• Population size reduced from >100,000 individuals to one population of 10-30
individuals by the end of the 19th century due to human hunting.
• Population has recovered to >80,000 individuals today.
• Reduced genetic diversity.

www.wikipedia.org https://i.honesttopaws.com/animals-wild-facts
 Impact of a population bottleneck on symmetry and genetic diversity in the northern
elephant seal (Holzel et al. 2002)
Findings:
- reduced genetic diversity
- entire genotypes lost
- increased asymmetry of the skull
- likely a function of developmental
instability due to loss of alleles

NES = Northern Elephant Seal

SES = Southern Elephant Seal
BN = Bottleneck
RMTR = Mandibular Tooth Row
LMTR = Upper Tooth Row

Journal of Evolutionary Biology

Volume 15, Issue 4, pages 567-575, 25 JUN 2002 DOI: 10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00419.x
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00419.x/full#f2
 Founder Event – another opportunity for genetic drift

- A founder effect occurs when a new population is started by a few members of the original
population in a new environment (the original population still exists).

- Likely a reduction in genetic variation in the newly founded population

- In the above example:
- Original population – 30 individuals
- Allele frequencies - purple allele: 12/30 = 0.40
- red allele: 11/30 = 0.37
- blue allele: 7/30 = 0.23
- Newly found population – 3 individuals
- purple allele: 1/3 = 0.33
- red allele: 2/3 = 0.67
- blue allele: lost = 0.00
 Example of a founder event - Invasive species
Can be significant losses in allelic diversity (i.e. number of different alleles) in the new
population.

Saint John’s wort

Rare alleles can increase in frequency in a population due to a founder
event
The Amish community in Lancaster County Pennsylvania have a very high
frequency (0.07) of the Ellis-van Creveld syndrome (polydactylous
dwarfism) compared with the general population (0.001)

This is an autosomal recessive condition.

It is believed that the founders of this Amish population (Samuel King

and his wife) were carriers of this mutate allele (EvC gene).

The Amish people observe strict endogamy (i.e. individuals marry within
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydactyly
community); so, no introduction of new alleles (except through
mutations).

Not testable – but inbreeding can also result in higher homozygosity.

4-minute break
 Genetic drift can happen WITHOUT a reduction in population
size! (Testable)

Due to random events related to reproduction (rather than survival).

(Lucky) individuals being in the right place at the right time for reproduction
resulting in more mating opportunities.
 Example: Genetic drift with no change in population size
• We will look at 3 generations of rabbits, n=10 rabbits per generation (so no change
in population size)
• 2 fur colours (brown and white) determined by B/b gene

• 1st generation: allele frequencies are B=0.5, b=0.5

• By chance, only five rabbits reproduce (circled)
- 2 BB, 3 Bb, 0 bb

https://cnx.org/contents/yNlSxj0E@5/Population-Genetics#fig-ch19_02_02
• 2nd generation: the allele frequencies have changed to
B=0.7 and b=0.3; so, genetic drift has occurred.

• Only two (lucky) rabbits in this generation (2nd generation)

reproduce. Both individuals have the genotype BB
(circled).

https://cnx.org/contents/yNlSxj0E@5/Population-Genetics#fig-ch19_02_02
• 3rd generation, p=1 (fixed), q=0 (lost)

• No white phenotype.

• Genetic drift (change in allele frequencies due to random

events); but, no change in population size.

https://cnx.org/contents/yNlSxj0E@5/Population-Genetics#fig-ch19_02_02
 iClicker Question
What are the possible consequences of genetic drift for allele
frequencies?
A. Reduction in the frequency of an allele
B. Increase in the frequency of an allele
C. Introduction new alleles
D. A & B
E. All of the above
 Answer
What are the possible consequences of genetic drift for allele
frequencies?
A. Reduction in the frequency of an allele
B. Increase in the frequency of an allele
C. Introduction new alleles
D. A & B
E. All of the above

But, overall, there tends to be a loss of genetic

variation over generations
 Genetic drift has several important effects for evolution
1. Genetic drift can reduce genetic variation in a population (as alleles are lost). This
potentially reduces a population’s ability to respond to a changing environment.
This is a special concern for small populations. This is one reason why small
population size is a concern for conservation biologists.

wikipedia
2. Genetic drift can also contribute to speciation (i.e. a small, isolated population
may diverge genetically from other larger populations due to genetic drift)
- 2nd step in speciation (to be discussed next week)
 (Population) Bottleneck Event vs. Founder Event

Bottleneck event: Founder event:

 Existing population decreases in New population is founded
size by a large amount. Allele frequencies in new
 Allele frequencies in the population differ from those in the
remaining population will likely parent population
differ from those in the earlier Basic model
generation.
 Basic model

Both types of events may result in a genetic bottleneck, i.e. reduction in allele diversity
 Genetic drift vs. Natural selection

Genetic drift: Natural selection:

Change in allele frequency due to Change in allele frequency due to
chance/random sampling (with respect specific sampling
to the gene of interest)
 Non-random sample of individuals
Random sample of individuals survive survive/reproduce to pass alleles to
and/or reproduce to pass alleles to the the next generation.
next generation
 Predictable
Unpredictable
 Basic model
Stronger effect on smaller
populations
 Natural Selection & Genetic Drift Activity
Please make sure that you have two alleles (poker chips), either
- Two red alleles (A1A1); or
- Two blue alleles (A2A2); or
- One red allele (A1) and one blue allele (A2)

A2 > A1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a13LjaPjgH8
 iClicker Question

What is your genotype:

A. Homozygous for red alleles (A1A1)

B. Homozygous for blue alleles (A2A2)
C. Heterozygous for red and blue alleles (A1A2)

Calculate allele frequencies for A1 and A2

Dragonflies can see the colour red, but not
the colour blue.

Calculate new allele frequencies.

Note – I expected the frequency of the A1

allele to decline and the A2 allele to increase
due to natural selection. The blue beetles
should have a selective advantage over the
red beetles as they are more cryptic (i.e. like
the mice with dark fur). https://michaelqpowell.com/2017/08/19/dragonfly-and-ladybug/
 iClicker Question – after a rockfall

If you survived the rockfall ONLY, what is your genotype:

A. Homozygous for red alleles (A1A1)

B. Homozygous for blue alleles (A2A2)
C. Heterozygous for red and blue (A1A2)

Allele frequencies in population after the rockfall

~ half of the beetles in the population perished because

they were unlikely, i.e. in the path of the rock fall. The
survivors were lucky (right spot). Example of genetic
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Landslide_just_outside_Canmo
drift, i.e. change in allele frequencies in a population re,_Alberta.jpg
due to change (or random sampling with respect to the
A alleles)
 Practice Explanation Question #1 (5 minutes)
The B gene in fish codes for body size. There are two possible alleles:
the B1 allele codes for large body size
the B2 allele codes for small body size.

In 2000, a small population (N=30) of isolated fish in Spectacle Lake had equal
frequencies of each allele (0.5:0.5).

In 2008, the fish population size declined from 30 fish to 5 fish due to drought.

In 2010, the fish population size had increased back to 30 fish, but the allele
frequencies had changed from 0.7 B1 to 0.3 B2.

Explain how genetic drift could be the evolutionary mechanism that explains the
change in allele frequencies in this fish population.
 A complete answer should include:
• A plausible scenario that could explain why the allele frequencies changed (due to
random or chance events), i.e.
• explains how there was an increase in the frequency of the B1 allele from 0.5
to 0.7
• and a decrease in the frequency of the B2 allele from 0.5 to 0.3
• in the Spectacle Lake fish population
• over a decade
• with a change in population size
• The fact that the population size of the fish was small (N=30) is also an
important piece of evidence
 Q1 - One possible answer
In 2008, the small fish population at Spectacle Lake went through a population
bottleneck when the population decreased from 30 fish to 5 fish due to a drought. It
is possible that, by chance, most of the fish that survived the drought were carrying at
least one B1 allele, whereas many of the fish that perished were carrying the B2
alleles. This would have resulted in an increase in the frequency of the B1 allele and a
decrease in the frequency of the B2 allele in the population.

The surviving fish would be the ones to pass their alleles to the next generation. This
could explain why in 2010, even though the population had recovered, the allele
frequencies in the Spectacle Lake fish population had a higher frequency of the B1
allele (0.7) and a lower frequency of the B2 allele (0.3) compared to the original 2000
population (0.5:0.5)
 Practice Explanation Question #2 (5 minutes)
The B gene in fish codes for body size. There are two possible alleles:
the B1 allele codes for large body size
the B2 allele codes for small body size.

In 2000, a small population (N=30) of isolated fish in Spectacle Lake had equal
frequencies of each allele (0.5:0.5).

In 2010, the allele frequencies had changed to 0.7 B1: 0.3 B2

There had been no change in the population size.

Explain how genetic drift could be the evolutionary mechanism that explains the
change in allele frequencies in this fish population.
 One possible answer
Genetic drift occurs in a population when, by chance, some individuals in a population leave
more descendants (and their alleles) than other individuals in the population, which results
in a change in allele frequencies in the next generation. (note – this type of definition is
optional – see answer to next question; but for full marks on an exam question your answer
would need to demonstrate that you understand what genetic drift is).

It is possible that, by chance, at Spectacle Lake, the fish that were carrying the B1 allele had
more opportunities to mate than the fish carrying the B2 allele. As a result, the fish carrying
the B1 allele would leave more descendants than the fish carrying the B2 allele. This would
explain the increase in the frequency of the B1 allele from 0.5 to 0.7 and the decrease in the
B2 allele frequency from 0.5 to 0.3. between 2000 and 2010.

Given that the population size of the fish in Spectacle Lake is small (N=30), genetic drift
would potentially have a large impact on the frequencies of the B alleles in this population
and would explain why the allele frequencies changed by 0.2 in just a decade.
 Next class

1. Last two mechanisms of evolution: Gene flow and Mutations

2. Phylogenetic Trees