Project Appraisal

ISSN: 0268-8867 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tiap18

Information technology and Africa: an appraisal of

the present situation and future potential

Evans E Woherem

To cite this article: Evans E Woherem (1991) Information technology and Africa: an
appraisal of the present situation and future potential, Project Appraisal, 6:1, 33-45, DOI:
10.1080/02688867.1991.9726790

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02688867.1991.9726790

Published online: 17 Feb 2012.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 77

View related articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tiap18

Download by: [129.56.254.174] Date: 14 February 2017, At: 04:09

IfojectAppraiCal,volume 6, number 1, March 1991, pages 33-45,Beech Tree Publishing 10 Watford Close, Guildford, Surrey GUl 2EP, England.
Information technology
Information technology and Africa: an
appraisal of the present situation and
future potential
Evans E Woherem
Thispaper looks at the present level of computing
in Afica, the diflculties of effective d i m i o n of
computem and transfer of information technol-
ogy (IT), and how to overnome them. It is con-
cluded that IT will not be a panacea for Afiaa’s
underdevelopment, but that, with adequateplan-
ning andprovision of the infiastructures that are
required for computer dimion, it could help in
enhancing standartls of living and economic
growth. +an countries should not introduce
IT systems indiscriminately, but should plan the
areas where they will result in benefits, without
much damage to domestic culture and
technology.
Keywords: information technology; Africa; development
Dr Evans E Woherem is at Lloyd’s Register, 29 Wellesley
Road, Croydon CRO 2AJ,UK
Project Appraisal March 1991
V r THE COMING of the new informa-
tion technology (IT) that is now in wide
use in the developed countries (DCs) and
is said to be ‘revolutionary’,carrying the world to a
new industrial epoch (Bell, 1974; Toffler, 1983),
many have started to consider its implications for
Africa (see for example, E r s t , 1986; Rada, 1985;
Katz, 1984;Kaplinsky, 1984;Bienefield, 1984;Ley,
1984;Bennet and Kalman, 1981;Tottle and Down,
1983; Bessant, 1984; and Neelam and Tocatlian,
1985).
Researchers and commentators are questioning
whether African countries can use the new IT to
enhance their development, or whether it will
widen the gap between the ‘haves’of the North and
the ‘have sots' of the South and this lead to a
strengthening of neo-colonialism. Some of these
issues are discussed in this paper and tentative
conclusions and suggestions provided.
First, a definition: IT refers to technologies that
pertain to human communication processes and
the information they handle. It helps in the collect-
ing, storing, processing and transmitting of in-
formation. It is today more particularly made to
refer to how computers store, process and transmit
information. It is the convergence of computing
and telecommunication technologies.
ITis seen by many zjs revolutionary;it is also seen
as the technology that will determine which
countries or companies will be leaders and which
followers, in the coming century. As will be seen
later, it has potential for being used to tackle many
0268-8867/91/010033-13 Usso3.00 Q Beech Tree Publishing 1991 33
Znfonnation technology in Afnca
African problems and some commentators even
believe it has the potential of aiding many develo-
ping countries to leapfrog development.
This paper asserts that African countries should
not only endeavour to familiarise themselves with
this technology, but should also aim to acquire a
working knowledge of its day-to-day applications
and effects. They should not only be able to use the
technology in various applications, but should also
aim to acquire the ability to repair and ‘re-engin-
eer’ it and to develop their own hardware and
software industry.
In addition, if an IT-implementing African
country does not actively try to understand the
socio-cultural implications of the technology, she
will find it difficult to use the technology effectively
and to cope with the changes that will emanate
from its introduction, in the work place and the
country as a whole.
What are the possible implications of IT to Af-
rican countries in their effort to increase standards
of living and economic growth? According to Ernst
(1986), Africa and other developing nations are
capable of coping, and benefiting from IT with
adequate planning and utilisation of their re-
sources. This paper posits that IT will have differ-
ent implications for different African countries,
depending on their size, population, gross national
product (GNP), GNPpercupita, educational infra-
structure, and so on.
Currently, IT is mostly developed and used in
the developed countries (DCs), and, to some ex-
tent now, in the newly industrialising countries
(NICs) (Sigurdson and Grandstrand, 1984;Cortes,
1984, Tigre 1983; Bhargava, 1981). On the other
hand, the dismal situation of IT use in Africa and
in most other less developed countries (LDCs) is
poignantly established by Ernst who writes that:
“It is important to note that while, in pure
technical terms, vast new possibilities have
been opened up for searching, storing, pro-
cessing and communicating information, only
a select group of highly privileged actors has
been capable of reaping the full benefits of
these technologies ...with a few exceptions,
developing countries have not been actively
involved in the development and diffusion of
these technologies, and their capacity to
monitor, adapt and redesign them has re-
mained quite weak. The lack of trained
people capable of assessing and translating
relevant information into operational deci-
sions and capable of learning from such ex-
perience, has been by far the most important
missing link.”
It is said that the dominance of United States,
Japanese and European companies is such that
only 2.3% of semi conductors and 1.8% of inte-
grated circuits are produced in the third world,
34
mostly in Southeast Asia, India, China and Brazil
(Hurtado, 1987).
African computer experience
According to a study carried out by Odedra (199O),
technology transfer of IT to Africa is still a mirage.
Five channels of transfer were investigated: ac-
quisition of IT systems; education and training;
technical assistance licensing; and direct foreign
investment. It was concluded that little technology
transfer had taken place. Amongst other things,
key findings were that:
0 although there is a growing number of people
who can operate computers and program, there
is still a shortage of programmers;
0 most of the systems used are bought off-the-
shelf, leading to some knowledge of how to
operate some systems, but not of how to pro-
gram or repair them;
0 in the past few years, a growing number of in-
digenous software houses has sprung up in the
larger African countries such as Nigeria, Kenya,
Zimbabwe and Cote d’Ivoire. Most of them are
only capable of undertaking small programming
jobs;
0 the computer market in Africa is presently
dominated by the MNCs (multinational com-
panies) like IBM, ICL, Bull, Wang and NCR.
They normally ensure that maintenance of hard-
ware and software is carried out by them, using
all kinds of gimmicks and arrangements;
0 most consultants from abroad who are invited to
design systems, lack knowledge of local condi-
tions. Their designs are therefore not depend-
able (suitable or appropriate) which leads to
under-utilisation of most systems;
0 although international agencies like UNESCO
(UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Org-
anisation), UNIDO (UN Industrial Develop-
ment Organisation), UNDP (UN Development
Programme), USAID (US Agency for Inter-
national Development), VSO (Voluntary Ser-
vice Overseas), CIDA (Canadian International
Development Agency) and VITA (Voluntary
Information Technology Agency) help to create
IT awareness in Africa and to donate systems,
most of the time it is without adequate training;
With regard to IT, Africa is currently
experiencing not technological
transfer but ‘transplantation’ - the
physical dumping of technological
goods made elsewhere
Project Appraisal March 1991
 Information technology in Afnca

0 a majority of foreign aid is linked to the donor Table 2. Telephone use In some African countries compared
country’s domestic products/consultants. with some NICs and DCs

This shows that what Africa is experiencing now Africa Telephone per 1OOO
with regard to IT is not technological transfer but population
only technology ‘transplantation’ - the physical
dumping of technological goods made elsewhere Nigeria 5
(Adikibi, 1985). Real technology transfer occurs Kenya 11

when a particular technology is capable of being Mali 1

Sudan 3
developed, repaired, managed and operated dom-
estically-when the country has acquired not only Togo 3
the operational knowledge but also the deep tech-
NiCs
nical know-how and tacit knowledge of the given
technology. Brazil 53
All this leads to the suggestion that African South Korea 108
countries should endeavour to initiate and control Malaysia 57
the process of IT skills and acquisition of know- Greece 304
how through an internally-generated development Hong Kong 376
and IT policy/strategy, and not rely on the MNCs
or multilateral organisations such as UNESCO. DC.

France 494
Computing experience Australia 365
West Germany 488
We now look in more detail at IT in terms of level USA 796
of diffusion and problems in Africa today, accord-
ing to commentators. Most countries have had Source: Calculated from the Statesman’s Year Book, 124th
some computing experience (see for example, edition, 1987-1988, John Paxton (editor) (The
Odedra, 1990, Fairall, 1986, Silcox and Green, Macmillan Press, London).
1986; Shitima, 1986; Ndamagi, 1986, and
Phamotse, 1986). and satellites) infrastructure. Africa lags woefully
However, a literature survey by the author, behind in the use of telex technology, and in the
shows that experience so far is largely in the use of number of telephones in use, as Table 2 shows.
mainframe computers. Africa has been using main- Telecommunications facilities and the elec-
frames for more than a decade now, though not as tricity supply are inadequate in Africa. The finding
much as the DCs or NICs. They have not enhanced of the Intergovernmental Bureau in Informatics
productivity, nor efficiency, but are mainly new that Africa makes use of only 3% of the world’s
ways of ‘crunching’numbers. computer communication level is therefore not
The reality today is that microcomputing is at the surprising. It is urgent that this imbalance be cor-
heart of the new information technology. Asurvey rected. It entails huge capital outlay, training, inter-
of the literature confirmed that microcomputers country projects, bilateral and multilateral
are rarely found in major sections of African collaborations.
countries’ economies, although they have started African countries do not have their own semi-
making significant inroads in some countries (see conductor. or electronics industry. So can they
Table 1). manufacture their own IT hardware? Multina-
Effective penetration and use of computers re- tional groups manufacture most IT hardware in the
quires, amongst other things, a steady electricity world today and it might be difficult to compete.
supply and a good telecommunication (submarine Some NICs have their own domestic electronics
cables, telephones, telecommunication networks and semiconductor industry. Some African
countries might, in the short term, start hardware
Table 1. Mkrocompuletr diffusion In some African counlriea assembly, while producing their own software and
adapting purchased software to their domestic
country 1984 1985 1989 needs: in the longer term, work would be towards
estimate becoming self-reliant, in both software and hard-
ware, as we will see later.
Gabon 400 1,083 4,100 Ndamagi asserted that Tanzania is in her “oper-
Cameroon 850 2,135 14,000 ational stage” of computer development. By this,
Cote D’lvoire 1,400 3,150 20,900 he means that Tanzania has wide understanding
Senegal 696 1,780 5,540 and application of computer technology in most
administration activities at top management level.
Source: South Magazine, July 1987.
She is now trying to catch up with the next and iast

Project Appraisal Match 1991 35

Infonnatin technology h Afnca
level -extensive managerial dependence on com-
puters for decision making, as well as strategic
planning.
However, the reality in Tanzania is that compu-
ters are very sparsely used. Just as in most other
African countries, the few in use have not been
utilised efficiently, due to lack of trained personnel
(Adkins, 1986, Odedra, 1990).
In general, ignorance of the potential benefits
of computers and where they could be used, plus
lack of trained personnel, and lack of knowledge
as to how to plan an IT strategy and finance, has
debarred many African countries from participat-
ing in the IT ‘revolution’. Many do not have access
to international data banks.
’
Africa has no international Financial Telecom-
munications System (such as SWIFT which links
more than 1,500 banks in 39 countries, a1lou;ing
them to transmit their transactions faster, and
much cheaper, than with telexes, so enabling inter-
bank dealings).
Use of IT
There are a few exceptions. In Kenya, Mwara
(1986) details computer use thus:
“Hours of computer use rose from 4 per day
to 24, an average increase of over 400 per
cent, the highest increase being at Caltex
oil.. .
By around 1982 there were about six com-
puter bureaus in Kenya and about 20 free-
lance individuals. More modern methods of
data communication were being introduced,
like key edit (key to tape) and key to disk, in
some cases with on-line real time processing,
in lieu of the punched card, paper tape and
magnetic tape backing store of the 1970s.
In 1976 the Kenya Government Computer
Centrewas the first toventure to change from
one supplier to another. Correspondingly
manpower has risen from a handful of novices
to a few hundred semi-to-well trained com-
puter technicians and specialists; but this has
not made significant impact on the severe
shortage, and brain drain.”
He however confessed that,
“...there is under-utilisation of the new tech-
nology in Kenya, and it is probably so in many
developing countries. The above figures indi-
cate that in Kenya, there are about 6,600
hours per week of unused capacity.”
To him, “inadequate training and brain drain” are
responsible for the “unused capacity” and the “vac-
ancies” that are always found in the IT sector, and
finding and retaining the right calibre (in terms of
36
In Zaire a prominent bank which was
initially underutilising its one
computer now has three, pointing to
more likely underutilsation in the
face of reduced economic activity
quality and quantity) of workers is difficult. Apart
from the brain drain to abroad, there is also one to
other professions.
Despite Nigeria’s oil wealth, resulting in higher
per capita income, GNP and better educational
infrastructure than Kenya’s, there are no computer
centres or bureaus. Nigeria has one of the lowest
computerper capita ratios in Africa, due to ignor-
ance and lack of will (Akindale 1986). Akindale
feels that this is wrong, and that the country stands
to gain by the use of new information technology
in its development. He therefore advised that there
should be:
“1. a national IT policy framework for the
country;
2. a national computing council/centre to
carry out the strategic planning, coordinate
the computing policy and control computing
practises in the country;
3. the provision of computer education and
training for many;
4. model computer centres that will imple-
ment policies adopted at the national com-
puter council and help ensure standards are
maintained. ”
Hurtado pointed out that in Zaire, a prominent
bank which was initially underutilising its one com-
puter, now has three, pointing to more likely
underutilisation in the face of reduced economic
activity. A UN report concluded that computers
were introduced into Tanzania “prematurely”,
when the necessary skilled labour and computer
culture were not available.
The few organisations that use computers today,
use mostly mainframes. Microcomputers are be-
ginning to be used to output analysed data in the
form of summary reports. These are given to low
level management and are not of much use to
middle and senior managers. Few organisations
use such data for management control and
strategic planning.
It has been suggested that African countries
should introduce computers in areas that are con-
cernedwith provision of basic needs, in the govern-
ment, and industrial and service sectors. Most of
the papers that have addressed this issue have been
cursory and general in their analysis or prescrip-
tion, and have emphasised more the use of IT to
satisfy basic needs, and for government. Not much
Project Appraisal March I991

has been said on how it can be used in the provision
of services.
Computers can be used in industry for adminis-
tration, payroll, accounting,order entry, inventory,
engineering, purchasing and receipt of goods,
production control, shop floor control, machine
monitoring, process control and as domain expert.
Big state-owned companies like the pharmaceuti-
cal industry in Egypt, oil refineries in Nigeria, steel-
works in Nigeria and tea and coffee processing in
Kenya, use computers as an integral part of process
technology. There are virtually no expert systems
or computer aided design systems (CADS), but just
a few computer aided learning systems (CALs)in
the rural areas, mostly small experimental pilot
projects funded from overseas.
Challenges in acquisition
Some Africans advocate acquisition of IT in order
to:
0 improve the quality of life of their people;
0 become technologically developed;
enhance economic growth;
0 have self-sufficiencyin computer technology;
0 be able to export computer technology.
However, not all African countries can achieve all
the above goals. Few have the potential to realise
them all, the rest can only hope to meet the first
three. Many, nevertheless, saw IT as a means to
help them develop and increase the general stan-
dard of living:
“We are many in developing countries who
found our hope in the computer revolution.
We see in it a way to realise our dream to
overcome poverty, mediocrity, and to reach a
society of equity and welfare.” (Benmoktar,
1984).
Muller (1979) understands the reasons for this
hope:
“With the continued advances in computing
technology, with the broad spectrum of avail-
able computing capabilities and with the
diversity that is now possible in computing
applications, it is understandable why there is
an international interest in computers for de-
veloping countries so that they too can
benefit from computing.”
However, he warns that “This interest must be
tempered by the challenges confronting develop-
ing countries and the many competing demands
made on their limited financial resources”. This is
a warning for Africa to think and plan carefully how
to spend its scarce financial resources, in other
Project Appraisal March 1991
ZnfomratiOn technology in Afnca
areas such as health, education and other social
services.
It means that countries in Africa should make
sure that their IT implementation is ‘demand-
pulled’ - by domestic needs, strategy or policy,
rather than by marketing considerations of com-
puter salesmen and suppliers. The demand-pull
should emanate, after careful consideration of the
country’s or organisation’s needs, the potential
social implications of the technology, and the
knowledge/skill and technological base of the
country.
New information technology can aid develop-
ment but not if it is erroneously seen as a panacea,
deserving all the attention and resources. The
number of computers introduced does not count
much in itself -what matters most is how efficient-
ly they are utilised.
Computers are normally most beneficial in sec-
tors that have existing formalised routines, and
where the proven benefits are clearly worked out.
As a result, the sectors in the DCs that have utilised
IT the most are banks, insurance companies and
some government institutions. Banking, hotels,
travel and services (such as transport) and educa-
tion, are all begging for effective microcomputer
introduction in Africa. There are also the areas of
checking for food shortages, weather forecasting,
drought, agro-climatic assessment and mainten-
ance of rural databases.
Computers require substantial capital outlay,
foreign exchange and skilled manpower to be put
to effective use. The reality is that African
countries are rural, short of capital, short of foreign
exchange, short of skilled manpower and short of
adequate telecommunications infrastructure, but
they do have a surplus of unskilled labour. So is
computerisation feasible, or potentially beneficial?
Freeman (1979) gives a list of some important
factors he deems necessary to consider for a tech-
nology to be diffused into a developing nation:
0 low relative cost;
0 effect on environment;
0 safety;
0 technical reliability;
0 how difficult or easy it is to learn;
0 effect on society;
0 the range of applications it has.
IT scores a plus on low relative cost;
effect on environment; safety;
technical reliability; ease of learning;
effect on society; and range of
applications: so it is a good
technology to diffuse in Africa
37
I n f o m ’ o n technology in Africa
To Freeman, IT has a plus on these qualities, and
is therefore going to be a better technology to
diffuse in places like Africa, than, for instance,
automobile, nuclear or space technologies.
To Narasimham (1981), IT is going to be mostly
useful in the service sector of developing nations:
“service sector problems require effective inform-
ation processing, computer technology could help
in solving them”.
It is widely accepted by United Nations agencies,
experts, and African leaders, that the biggest rea-
son for African underdevelopment is bad or inef-
fective public sector management, as a result of
lack of data availability, and, when data are avail-
able, inadequate use of them. This means that IT
will help African countries gather, store, assess and
transmit data to aid public administration.
Edmonds (1986) quoted a World Bank report
(1983), which pointed out that,
“...coordination of planning efforts, reform
of budgetary systems, and monitoring of pro-
jects entail the processing of large quantities
of data. They are therefore greatly helped by
recent advances in microcomputers and asso-
ciated software”.
Success story
To show how ITcan aid a developing nation Gupta
(1987) wrote that:
“One example of this is computer use in the
Indian Railways. Indian Railways is a very
large organisation employing about 1.6 mil-
lion people and handling over ten million
passengers each day. Such a large organisa-
tion generates huge amounts of information.
Effective processing of such large amounts of
information manually is extremely difficult if
not impossible. Computers can provide more
effective and much more efficient means of
processing large volumes of information and
in many applications this could mean provi-
sion of better services as well as saving of
capital. In the Indian Railways, use of compu-
ters has been reported to have improved
wagon availability and has reduced the
inventory held by the Railways from 66 per
cent ofthe annual turnover to less than 40 per
cent. This is a substantial reduction since the
annual turnover is of the order of 1,0oO mil-
lion dollars. Such release of capital could be
used by the organisation in other worthwhile
projects. The use of computers may involve
some labour displacement but the capital
saved could be used for generating more em-
ployment elsewhere.”
Edmonds (1986) cites another case:
38
“A remarkable success story, reported in the
Financial Times, is the introduction of micro-
computers into the Kenyan Ministry of
Finance. Starting in 1983 with 5 computers
donated by USAID the Ministry has compu-
terised its budgetary process, and last year
completed a full review of all ministry spend-
ing programmes, over 14,000 items, using
data over the past five years. It took three
days using one self-trained operator and a
secretary. There are 70 microcomputers in
use in different ministries.”
It is not only big organisations in Africa that can
benefit from computer use. For small businesses
microcomputers can provide up-to-date informa-
tion on their orders, accounts and inventory.
Importance to Africa
In view of these potential benefits, what is the
importance of IT to Africa’s development? In rais-
ing this question, we also have to consider the
economic and political context within which these
countries operate.
There is still a recession today in most parts of
the world. This is making economic development
doubly difficult for African countries. Most of
those analysing the effectsof IT in Africa do so
with a consideration of the international political
and economic milieu (see for example, Jordan and
Malaivongs, 1977; Bennet and Kalman, 1981;
Tottle and Down, 1983;Rada 1980,1982 and 1985;
and Bessant, 1984). A review of this literature
points to no concrete conclusion: IT could be for
ill or good to Africa, in terms of its social, political,
cultural and economic effects.
According to Neelam and Tocatlion (1985), the
United Nations and, in particular, UNESCO feel
that IT can enhance productivity, and so economic
growth. With adequate planning, utilisation of re-
sources and provision of skills, it could aid a ‘leap-
frogging’of development. UNESCO also feels that
IT will help co-operation and collaboration.
Dosa (1985) said that microelectronics can help
in the important job of providing avenues for stor-
age, retrieval and communication of information.
To Deighton (1981), it could be used to enhance
water resource management, transportation, and
so on. In fact, in his view, all areas of national
development, can be enhanced through the use of
computers.
To Dore (1984) and Ranis (1984), the devel-
oping nations can avail themselves of the oppor-
tunity opened up by the diffusion of these
technologies in the world, to aid development. Ley
(1984) also believes that developing countries can
use IT to lessen the gap between them and the
DCs.
To Murphy (1986):
Project Appraisal March I991

“IT, if properly used in the Third World
countries, can be the main factor in increasing
productivity in public administration, the
communications infrastructure, industry and
agriculture. If a country is to grow and suc-
cessfully utilise the economic assets that it
gradually develops, then it needs to have a
proper system of planning and control. If
utilised rationally and coherently, IT is the
best method for handling large amounts of
data, which national planning calls for, and it
can be used via modelling techniques in order
to test hypothesis. Should these models be
transferred into actual projects, then IT sys-
tems must be used to control their implemen-
tation. IT can also be used to overcome the
lack of education and trained personnel that
so often bedevils a developing country, par-
ticularly the area of national administration.”
On the other hand, Eres (1981) feels that the
optimists of IT’S benefit to Africa fail to realise that
information is a consequence of developments, not
the other way round. Rada (1985) echoes this view,
but feels that, with concerted effort by the inter-
national community to aid easy mastery and diffu-
sion of IT in the developing countries, the gap
between the North and the South could be bridged;
otherwise, the gap will widen.
To Strassman (1985), the optimists assume that
the diffusion of IT is a panacea for underdevelop-
ment, but fail to realise that if a country practises
bad business, and is inefficient, computers will not
make their business good. Therefore, there are
“holes” in the domains of systems, technology, edu-
cation, politics, business strategy and applications
that need filling before IT can help (Bogod, 1979).
Noor (1984) thinks that the problems facing
Africa and other developing nations concerning
the introduction of IT are the same as those facing
the DCs, except that, in the LDCs, there is also the
problem of national development - problems of
poverty, internal and regional conflicts, inadequate
infrastructure, conflicting priorities. To him, these
seemingly intractable problems could be corrected
with the help of IT, but they need to be tackled
before Africa can make any meaningful use of the
technology. To Eres (1981), these barriers to the
successful diffusion of IT in Africa are due to lack
IT is knowledge-intensive so that
whoever is able to acquire the
necessary know-how and do research
is going to benefit: unfortunately
most African countries are short of
this knowledge
Project Appraisal March I991
Infomation technologv in Afnca
of finance (economic) and skilled manpower (per-
sonnel), and arise from cultural, demographic,
social, political and infrastructural problems.
The DCs dominate in the use of IT because they
are in the forefront of research and development,
and the ability to use the technology to bring about
new innovations. IT is knowledge-intensive, so that
whoever is able to acquire the necessary know-how
and do research is going to benefit. Unfortunately,
most African countries are short of this knowledge
(Bessant, 1984).
For Africa to enhance its IT, it preferably needs
the ability to develop the technology and the manu-
facture of IT products, or else the ability to exploit
existing products efficiently. In other words, if she
cannot develop her own IT due to lack of knowl-
edge, research, and existing research base, she can
at least import the products she needs from abroad,
and make adequate use of them. With adequate
planning and implementation of their IT policy,
some African countries could go on to gradually
transfer microelectronics technology - building
their own hardware, software and an IT manage-
ment culture.
Rada (1982) and Bessant (1984) have pointed
out that technology transfer is normally not suc-
cessful. Usually, that which is introduced is inap-
propriate. These technologies are difficult for the
LDCs to man and utilise appropriately, in view of
the shortage of training and skilled personnel.
Often, the technologies are irrelevant to their
development needs and are not adequately used.
They break down and cannot even be maintained
or repaired. Worst of all, they destroy the domestic
culture and conditions. They are mostly not useful
to people in the rural areas: in urban areas, they
largely benefit only the elite.
Here to stay
All these doubts of the benefit of IT to developing
nations notwithstanding, the truth is that IT is here
to stay. The world is going ‘post-industrial’; IT is
revolutionising the DCs, and shrinking the world
into a ‘global village’. Africa cannot afford to miss
out on this new industrial revolution, so, how can
IT be used for development?
Davies (1985) advocated that African countries
should decide on their needs first before choosing
a particular IT, to make sure that it is ‘appropriate’.
Riedjik (1982) and Eres (1981) recommended
some factors that make technology appropriate.
Slamecka (1985) is optimistic that Africa and
other developing countries will benefit from ITdue
to its cost-effectiveness and user-friendliness, and
because of developments in telecommunications
networks, and the use of high level programming
languages.
Telecommunications networks in Africa can
help transborder data flow, in the form of improved
39
Information technobgy in Afica
communication. African countries should. how-
ever, make sure that this flow is not always from it
to the DCs, but also in the other direction..
To Davies (1989, Expert Systems (ESs), micro-
computers, teleconferencing, videotext and laser
disks are appropriate technologies, as are data-
bases to enable planning and the management of
the natural and human resources of the country.
Davies is also optimistic that computer-aided in-
struction and medical information systems will be
of tremendous help to Africa in attaining its devel-
opment goals.
Sadar (1981) believes that African countries
should be careful when choosing ITS, as most of
what is there today is not suitable for the bulk of
the population. When told that this piece of IT is
appropriate, they should always ask “appropriate
to whom?” -to the user? country? or culture?
To Kalman (1981), all these problems can be
solved, and all barriers towards IT acquisition over-
come through instituting a national IT strategy.
Noor (1984) provided a framework for the adop-
tion and management of such a strategy: to be
effective it requires expertise, information, plan-
ning and co-ordination, which are currently weak
in Africa.
Towards this end, many advise that Africa needs
to put a lot of resources into training, human re-
source development ’ and education. However,
training costs money and most African countries
do not have enough to provide all their training
needs.
Companies and other organisations might not
be willing to allow their workers time for training.
If they do, at what cost? They will also have to
decide who should receive training, for how long
and what type. How can they make IT training fit
in with the general IT needs of the country and its
educational, cultural and social needs.
Education and training in systems development
in Africa is largely technocratic (from a technical
functionality perspective alone), based on the
western mechanistic paradigm. This could lead to
trainees looking for technological fmes where they
are not needed, and without considering whether
their country can provide them with appropriate
inputs or data, or whether they might damage the
society, morality, ethics, culture and politics.
The consensus of opinion is that IT is potentially
beneficial for Africa, and could enhance develop-
ment if the social, cultural, economic, technologi-
cal and political barriers are eradicated. The
political barriers include instability of govern-
ments; constantly changing priorities; and extreme
need for secrecy. These hinder medium- and long-
term planning (Eres, 1981). To Thorpe (1984),
these barriers constitute stumbling blocks towards
successful adoption of IT, but the first and biggest
step is training and education.
A1971 UN report, TheApplicationof Computer
Technology for Development, recommended, in
40
A 1971 UN report recommended that
in LDCs appropriate national and
regional centres be established for
training, national plans be
elaborated and resources allocated,
and outside assistance be given
general terms, that in developing countries,
“1. appropriate national and regional centres
be established and means be found to educate
and train both specialists and the general pub-
lic as well as to foster exchange of technical
information;
2. national, short term and long term plans
should be elaborated and sufficient resources
be allocated for their implementations;
3. assistance should be given to developing
countries multilaterally through UN organi-
sations, bilaterally through twinning relation-
ships and through professional organisations.
Country specific plans could be made from
these global recommendations”.
So far, African countries, like other developing
nations, have found it difficult to carry out the UN
recommendations, particularly in making the pol-
icy or strategy plans. They have an acute shortage
of computing professionals. The few they have are
lost through the brain drain to other countries, or
to other professions.
They lack an uninterrupted and steady supply of
electricity, and good telecommunications network
infrastructure that ought to be present before IT
can successfully take off. They find it difficult to
identify their needs, and to choose which techno-
logies are appropriate. They also have poor com-
puter organisation and management know-how.
Various implications
Bhalla (1987) points out that leapfrogging of tech-
nological development is predicated on the “cur-
rent levels of domestic technological capability in
general and the capacity to absorb high technology
in particular”. A country has to have the organisa-
tional capacity for innovation and the ability to
make new products. It should also have an indigen-
ous technological base, that will help it assimilate,
utilise and upgrade the new technology.
TO Bhalla, not all developing countries have the
capacity for absorbing and developing new techno-
logies. To him, “export oriented” NICs that are
already competing in international markets are
much better placed than the LDCs or the MICs
Project Appraisal March I991
 Informution technology in Afnca

(middle income countries); and even within the
NICs, he feels that India lags behind.
Bhalla also pointed out that
“an interface between mechanical and chemi-
cal skills on the one hand and electrical skills
on the other, is a precondition for the devel-
opment and utilisation of high technology.
This interface is generallyweak in developing
countries, which may make leapfrogging
difficult”.
African countries do not have the mechanical,
chemical and electrical skills that are normally re-
quired prior to the ability to assimilate and up-
grade new technology, thus making technological
leapfrogging with microelectronics difficult. That
does not mean it will be impossible for all. We
noted earlier that African countries are not homo-
geneous: some belong to the LDCs, some to the
NIQ, some are big, some small; some are rich in
human and natural resources, while others are not.
We can infer that those with an adequate edu-
cational infrastructure, large domestic market and
huge resources, can start attempting a far-reaching
technological take off now. With adequate plan-
ning they can exploit IT and proceed to produce
their own microelectronics industry.
To do this requires the government to develop
a suitable policy that will enable the acquisition of
IT. To assist assimilation,government should make
a realistic assessmentof the country’s present tech-
nological capabilities and capacity, what skills are
lacking and how it can remedy this in the future.
Government should provide the infrastructure
needed for technology to operate, decide on what
new technologies to transfer, and provide capital
for research on how to adapt and upgrade the new
technology.
Government has a central role to play in the
industrial process, especially in providing the infra-
structure and stability necessary for the private
sector to operate. The government’s visible hand
has to provide the rules of the economic and indus-
trial game.
Apart from helping in producing and supplying
public goods and services,such as national defence,
internal security, money, legal system (the legal
system reduces the costs and risks of transactions),
government also has to provide transport, power,
education, training, research facilities and help
other sectors of the economy to work smoothly.
With adequate policy and planning, IT can en-
hance productivity, reduce costs, and increase effi-
ciency in most African countries. As these
countries are different from one another in their
potential ability to exploit IT, I have tentatively
suggested putting them into three categories as
defined below.
Before examining these categories, let us see
how the Advisory Committee on the Application
of Science and Technology to development
(ACAST) and the UN classifj the different levels
of computer use by countries (see Figure 1) and
how the classifications apply to African countries.
Whereas the classification by ACAST and the
UN (UN, 1971) was based on the level of sophisti-
cation in computer usehechnology (with economic
assumptions implicit), that adopted here is accord-
ing to the economic development level of African
countries. Virtually no African country today be-
longs to the ‘initial’level of the ACASTKJN. This
includes countries in category 1below.
Almost all countries, except South Africa, are
either at the ‘basic’ level or in-between the ‘basic’
and the ‘operational’ level.
None of the countries can be termed as wholly
belonging to just one level. For example, in almost
all African countries today:
0 there is some (and sometimes, even extensive)
awareness of computers and their application

Level Characteristics

Initial There are no operational computers in the country. Afew nationals have had contact with computing. The only local
sources of information are computer salesmen.
Basic There is some understandingof computers in government (and private) decision centres.Afew computer installations
are to be found. There are some nationals involved in computer operations. There is some education and training in
computer technology in the country. Computers are used in basic government operations.
Operational There is extensive understanding of computers in government (and private) decision centres. Among the numerous
computer installations there are some very large machines. There are centresfor education and training in computer
technology and some are of excellent quality. They offer degree programmes in computer or information science.
There is design and production of software and some manufacture of hardware. Computers are affecting many
disciplines, particularly science, engineering and medicine.
Advanced Most government and administrative work is carried out by computers. There are well established professional
activities and national meetings on computers. There is a complete range of quality education and training
programmes. The number of computers, of all sizes, is increasing rapidly. Time-sharing, teleprocessing and remote
job entry are common. There is design and production of both hardware and software. Many technologies have
changed or are in the course of being changed. New applications of computers are found regularly. There is strong
participation in the contribution to international activities.

Figure 1. ACAST/UN classification of levels of computer development of countries

Source: UN report (1971), The Application of Computer Technologyfor Development.

Project Appraisal March 1991 41

Information technology in Afri.a
both in the public and private sectors;
there are computers operated (sometimes, even
developed) by nationals;
there are basic (to quite good) educational and
training institutions which provide computer
education;
there are computers in use in carrying out some
government tasks;
there are some large computer installations
used by major government/industrial concerns;
there are some nationals who can write software
programs and some have even started making
plans for the local assembly/design of the
hardware.
No African country, except perhaps South Africa,
can claim that most of their government and ad-
ministrative work is done by computers, a n d s o
none can claim to belong to the ‘advanced’level of
computer use. Although none of the countries are
in the ‘initial’ level of computer use any longer,
none also has a comprehensive/effective national
IT policyhtrategy.
Most African countries in the OECD’s (Organi-
sation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-
ment) ‘low income’ group are in the ACAST /UN
‘basic’ level, while most of those in the ‘middle
income’ group are (while still somewhat in the
basic level) moving to’the ‘operational’ level.
Category one
These are countries which might find the cost of
acquiring the technology (hardware and software)
prohibitive. Further, shortage of skilled personnel
to use, upgrade and maintain ITwill result in it not
being used efficiently or to capacity, and so will lead
to eventual abandonment.
These countries fall within the category of the
OECD’s least developed countries classification
(LDCs). They have very lowper capita income, low
literacy and poor infrastructure (roads, transport
and telephones). They also have very few higher
education and training establishment, and very few
people in training to man their IT.
These countries can only move up to the ‘oper-
ational level’ of computer development (in the
foreseeable future), since they lack the finance and
No African country, except perhaps
South Africa, can claim that most of
their government and administrative
work is done by computers, and so
none can claim to belong to the
‘advanced’ level of computer use
42
the natural and human resources that will enable
them to start their own software and hardware
industry or to be able to move to the ‘advanced’
level. Examples that fall into this category are Mali,
Togo, Mozambique and Somalia.
Category two
The countries in this category belong to OECD’s
middle income group. They have fairly good edu-
cational and training institutions, but have small
populations. They can afford some IT systems and
can plan and maintain them efficiently in some
sectors. They do not have enough financial re-
sources for an all-out introduction of IT to all
sectors. They can import their IT from abroad and
with their ample training and educational institu-
tions, are able to provide the trained personnel to
operate it.
They cannot afford an independent electronics,
or fibre optics industry (which form the basis for
microelectronics production) due to lack of fin-
ance or the human resources required to carry out
the necessary research, design and building of the
technology. A country like Libya might have the
money to start building a domestic IT industry, but
she does not have the human resources to sustain
it. A country like Kenya, on the other hand, has a
better human resource position, but lacks the capi-
tal to embark on building its own IT industry.
Countries in this category, therefore, can hope
to use IT, to improve government administration,
aid planning, improve services and increase prod-
uctivity. So, with effective policy and the im-
plementation of their IT policyhtrategy, they can
use IT to improve their standard of living, increase
productivity and promote economic growth.
These countries can move up to the ‘advanced’
level of computer development but without their
own hardware industry. Included in this category
are countries like Cote D’Ivoire, Libya, Cameroon,
Gabon and Zimbabwe.
Category three
Countries in this category have huge populations,
large human and natural resources and good edu-
cational and skill training establishments. Todaro
(1985) said that:
“large size entails complex problems of
national cohesion and administration while
offering the benefits of relatively large mar-
kets, a wide range of resources, and the
potential for self-sufficiency and economic
diversity. In contrast, for small countries the
situation is reversed, with problems including
limited markets, shortage of skills, scarce
physical resources, weak bargaining power
Project Appraisal March 1991

and little prospect of significant economic
self-reliance”.
If countries in this category so choose, with ade-
quate planning, they can use IT to aid development
and effectivelyjoin the NICs. In the short run, they
can assemble IT hardware at home, gradually in-
creasingdomestic content in stages. They can enter
into joint ventures with good local participation,
while also encouraging domestic IT research in
both private and government/university sectors.
Almost all their software needs can be satisfied
internally, with imported software limited to pro-
grams that can be developed further to suit their
domestic requirements.
These countries can use IT to rationalise prod-
uction, to increase efficiencyin government admin-
istration and planning, in the civil service, in
business and in running of their services.
They can (like countries in category two)
0 move towards the extensive use and integration
of government and private computer systems;
0 start their own software production;
0 establish good IT training institutions;
0 form their own national professional and user
computer societies;
0 establish their own IT research and develop-
ment establishments to provide the expertise for
continual progress in the use, design and im-
plementation of the technology; and
0 establish their own hardware design and manu-
facturing establishments.
Countries in this category are Egypt, Nigeria,
Algeria.
Need for caution
Many believe that, in the long term, IT results in
‘jobless growth’, deskills work, and causes worker
alienation (see for example Gregory and Nuss-
baum, 1982; Hudson, 1985; Marglin, 1974; For-
rester, 1980, Sherman, 1980, Rowe, 1986,
Braverman, 1974; Noble, 1977; Cooley, 1980, and
Zimbalist, 1979). Therefore, all African countries
(including those in category three), should temper
their zeal to introduce IT in every sector so as to
Western techniques bring with them
western values and cultures: this
could threaten the tenets of the
traditional culture and hamper
sovereignty, because IT is mostly
dominated by the developed countries
Project Appraisal March 1991
Information technology in Afica
bring about the evinced benefits, with a realisation
of the net effects these moves will have on their
respective countries.
In spite of the potential benefits IT can provide,
indiscriminateand improperly planned application
will result in increased unemployment; It would
also mean more breakdown of their culture, be-
cause western techniques bring with them western
values and cultures. The resulting clash of cultures
could further warp Africans and cause cultural
disorientation.
This could threaten the tenets of the traditional
culture and hamper sovereignty, because IT is
mostly dominated by the DCs through their MNCs.
This dominance could result in a one-way flow of
data from Africa to the DCs, and to further control
by the DCs.
When technologies from the DCs are imported
into Africa, they are often inappropriate and cause
harm to the domestic culture. This is because tech-
nologies are not amoral, as many in the DCs tell the
Africans, nor are they politically neutral. They
come with embedded value systems (ideologies,
techniques and organisation) -value systems that
only confuse the receiving countries (Pacey, 1983).
When technologies from the DCs are sent to places
like Africa, they only benefit the Clite in the cities,
increasingtheir standard of living at the expense of
those in the ‘ghettos’and rural areas.
Also, when new technologies from abroad are
introduced in the rural areas, they impede indigen-
ous technologicalcompetence. Hence, some advo-
cate that the rural areas should evolve their own
technologies, based on their needs, while tech-
niques from abroad are used solely in the cities. The
villages, they say, do not need these modern tech-
nologies, what they need are technologies that will
not destroy them or their culture - technologies
that they can control, maintain and upgrade them-
selves, and which will not alienate them. For
example, Singer (1977) says:
“...New science and technology are created
at one end, but displace science and technol-
ogy that existed previously. Being located in
rich countries with their dynamic search for
new knowledge and their vastly and increas-
ing different requirements and priorities, it is
not surprising that the knowledge displaced
or submerged at one end may well be more
useful to the developing countries than the
new knowledge added at the other end”.
The fact is that IThas potential to cause unemploy-
ment, deskill, and alienate workers, much more
even than the technologies of the industrial revol-
ution. I propose that African countries should not
apply IT indiscriminately,everywhere in urban and
rural areas all at the same time. If this were done,
it could well increase productivity and efficiencyin
the short run, but in the long run, its capital-inten-
43
Znfortrdon technology in Africa
sive nature would displace workers from their jobs.
It would also lead to a lot of alienation, especially
in the rural areas, in which case, the initial benefit
will be off-set by consequent mass unemployment.
It would be more rational for Africa to have a
‘two-edged planned policy’ for partial introduction
of IT in some sectors and not in others. IT could be
used to make the running of government and civil
services in the urban areas more efficient, and also
for the improvement of businesses and services
(which are mostly in the cities) leaving the villages
and the cottage industries out of it.
Some believe that it is in the rural areas, in
agriculture, that ITwill be even more useful. Cole
(1986), however, believes otherwise:
“farming typically has a much lower informa-
tion component and hence a lower potential
for application of information technology
than does banking where almost all the activ-
ity in a financial transaction involves informa-
tion processing and storage”.
Nevertheless, it is sensible to suggest that ITshould
not be introduced indiscriminately into rural agri-
culture, nor its cottage industries until it is suffi-
ciently adjusted to suit the rural areas, or until the
rural areas are ready.
IT requires skilled ’staff to run, upgrade, main-
tain and repair it. These skills are not present in the
villages. So, although people like Toffler (1983)
feel that IT is simple enough to be used in the rural
areas, the fact remains that it still breaks down and
needs repair and effective use.
It is agreed that most ITS in Africa today are
running below capacity, and are ill-used. If this is
the case in the cities, then it will be worse in the
rural areas, where there are few, if any, educated
people. African villages are not culturally, socially
or intellectually ready for IT now -it would only
make things worse for them.
The danger is that, if IT enables the cities to
industrialise, more people will leave the rural areas
for an already overcrowded city, in search of the
‘bright lights’. With adequate education however,
those in the rural areas can be made to realise that
they are better off in their villages.
Also,if those in the villages are provided with all
the necessary amenities and recreational facilities
they need, and if the increased economic growth
initiated by IT is used to enable the rural areas
develop themselves in their own way (with the
government providing them with their information
needs), many will not want to leave for the cities.
Conclusion
Despite IT’s tendency towards long-term deskill-
ing, unemployment and alienation, African
countries and other developing countries need not
44
let the IT ‘train’ pass them by, as that will mean
even more harm to them and their economies in
this competitive world. IT increases productivity
and rationalisation of work and public administra-
tion - qualities that would enable African
countries to solve most of their problems.
This paper has called attention to the import-
ance to Africa of the issues concerning IT. It aimed
to stimulate awareness of the IT revolution and its
implications for development, and to let African
countries realise that they are now in a world that
is moving into a major epoch of development.
The conclusion is that most African countries
can, if they choose, and with an adequate ITstrate-
gy and national will, join the information age and
utilise IT to enhance economic growth and living
standards, or even to leapfrog development. Be-
cause of IT’s proneness to displace work, deskill
and alienate workers and citizens, and because
rural areas are not culturally, socially or intellec-
tually ready for IT, the governments of each of the
African countries should plan IT introduction in
the cities (in central government, business and the
running of some carefully chosen services), and not
in the rural areas (in agriculture and cottage
industries).
IT is not a panacea, and, unless an adequate IT
strategy is laid down, the benefits of IT might just
be an elusive dream. In evolving an IT strategy it is
necessary to be aware of the country’s present
needs and capabilities (in terms of availability of
capital and human resources), and the potential
deleterious social effects of the technology.
References
0 T Adikibi (1985), “Technology transfer to less developed
countries by multinational corporations: does it actually
occur’?”,paper presented at the Conference of the Inter-
national Geographical Union Commission on Industrial
Change, Nijmegen, Holland, 19-24 August.
R Adkins (1986), “Beneficial and adverse effects of IT in develo-
ping countries: an organisationalperspectivewith cases from
Tanzania”,mimeo.
T Akindale ( l a ) ,“Computersas a tool for nationaldevelopment:
getting started”, Information Technology for Development,
1 (3),September.
D Bell (1974), The Coming of Pos&lndustrialSociety (Heineman,
London).
B Benmoktar (1984), “Regionalcomputer cooperationand socio-
economic development: case of Morocco”,in R Kalman (edi-
tor), RegionalComputer Cooperationin DevelopingCountries
(North Holland Publishing Co,Amsterdam).
J Bennet and E Kalman (1981), Computingin DevelopingNations
(North Holland).
J Bessant (1984), “Information technology and the north-south
divide“,in A Burns (editor),New lnformstion Technology (Ellis
Hotwood).
A Bhalla (1987), “Can ‘high’ technology help third world ’take
off ‘7”,Economic and Political Weekly, 4 July.
P Bhargava (1981), “Microprocessorsforthe Indianenvironment”,
paper presented at the flasco Seminar on Microelectronics,
Buenos Aires, December.
Bienefeld (1984), “Internationalconstraints and opportunities”,in
M Fransman and K King (editors), Technological Capabilityin
Project Appraisal March 1991

the Third World (Macmillan Press, London).
J Bogod (1979), “The role of computing in developing countries”,
BCS Lecture Series, No 2 (British Computer Society).
H Braverman (1974), Labour and Monopoly Capital: the Degrada-
tion of Workand the Twentieth Century (Monthly Review Press,
New York).
S Cole (1986), “The global impact of information technology”,
World Development, 14(10/11).
M Cooley (1W), Architect or Bee? (Langley Technical Services,
Slough, UK).
C Cortes (1984), “Informatics policy in Columbia”, unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Manchester.
D Davies (1985), “Appropriate information technology”, lnterna-
tionalLibrary Review, 17.
S Deighton (editor) (1981), Computers inDevelopingCountries, A
Bibliography (Last Electrical Engineers).
R Dore (1984), “Technological self-reliance: study ideal or self
rhetoric”, in M Fransman and K King (editors) (1984), Techne
logical Capability in the Third World (Macmillan Press, Lon-
don).
M Dosa (1985), “Information transfer as technical assistance for
development”,Journal of the American Society for lnformation
Science, 36(3).
L Edmonds (1986), “Information technology, public administra-
tion and the developing countries”, paper presented at the
Development Studies Association Conference, September.
B Eres (1981), “Transfer of information to less developed coun-
tries: a system approach”, Journal of the American Society for
lnformation Science, 32(2).
D Ernst (1986) “Implications for human resources development”,
Economic and PoliticalWeekly, 30 August.
G Fairal (1986), “Computer based financial transaction process-
ing: the Zimbabwe network”, lnformation Technology for De-
velopment, 1(3), September.
T Forrester (1980),“The robots are here”, New Society, 2 October.
C Freeman (1979), “Social and economic impact of microelectro-
nics”, Proceedings of the Workshop of Technology Assess-
ment, Its Role in National and Corporate Planning (AGPS,
1979).
J Gregory and K Nussbaum (1982), “Race against time: automat-
ion and the office“, Office, Technology and People, 1.
G Gupta (1987), “Role of computer technology in developing
countries”, lnformation Technology for Development, 2(1),
March.
C Hudson (1985), “Computers in manufacturing”, in T Forrester
(editor), The lnformation Technology Revolution (Basil Black-
well, London).
M Hurtado (1987), “The computer tangle”, South, July.
J Jordan and K Malaivongs (editors) (1977), “Computer applica-
tions in developingcountries”, Proceedingsof the lnternational
Conference, Bangkok, August (Asian Institute of Technology,
Bangkok).
R Kalman (1981), “Eight strategic issues for informatics” in J
Bennet and R Kalman (editors), Computers in Developing
Nations, Proceedingsof the IFlP Seminar, Melbourne,Austra-
lia, October 1980 (North-Holland, Amsterdam).
-
Kaplinsky (1984), “Trade in technology who, what, where and
when?, in M Fransman and K King (editors), Technological
Capability in the Third World (Macmillan Press, London).
J Katz (1984), “Technological innovation, industrial organisation
and comparative advantage of Latin American metalworking
industries” in M Fransman and K King (editors), Technological
Capability in the Third World (Macmillan Press, London).
C Ley (1984), “Relations of production and technology” in M
Fransman and K King (editors) TechnologicalCapability in the
Third World (Maanillan Press, London).
S Marglin (1974), “What do the bosses do? The origins and
functions of the capitalist production” in A Gon (editor), The
Division of Labour: The Labour Process and Class Struggle in
Modern Capitalism (Harvester, Brighton).
M Muller (1979), “Effective statistical computing in an environ-
ment of changing policies and technology”, Conference
Paper, Manilla.
B Murphy (1986), The lnternationalPolitics of lnformation Technol-
ogy (Croom Helm, London).
Project Appraisal March 1991
Information technology in Afica
N Mwara(l986), “Issues on computers and development: Kenyan
perspective”, lnformation Technology for Development, 1(2),
June.
R Narasimham (1984), Guidelines for software production for
achieving software self-reliance in developing countries
(UNIDO, Vienna).
C Ndamagi (1986), “Status of informatics technology in Tanza-
nia”, lnformation Technology for Development, 1(3).
A Neelam and J Tocatlion (1985), “Informational cooperation in
information systems and services”, Journal of the American
Society for lnformation Science, 36(3).
F Noble (1977), America by Design (New York).
A Noor (1984), “Aframework for the creation and managementof
national computing strategies in developing countries”, Com-
pleteJournal, 27(3).
M Wedra (1990), “Information technology transfer to developing
countries: is it really taking place?”, Proceedings of a Con-
ference on lnformation Technology Assessment, University of
Dublin, Dublin, 9-12 July.
A Pacey (1983), The Culture of Technology (Basil Blackwell, Lon-
don).
L Phamotse (1986), “Information technology in Lesotho: past,
present and future”, lnformation Technology for Development,
1(3),September.
J Rada (1980), The lmpact of Microelectronics (ILO).
J Rada (1982), “A third world perspective” in G Fredrichs and A
Schaff (editors), Microelectronics and Society for Better or for
Worse, Club of Rome Report (Pergamon).
J Rada (1985), “Information technology and the third world“, in J
Forrester (editor) The lnformation Technology Revolution
(Blackwell, UK).
G Ranis (1984), “Determinants and consequencies of indigenous
technological activity,” in M Fransman and K King (editors),
TechnologicalCapability in the Third World (Macmillan Press,
London)
W Riedjik (1982), “Appropriate technology for developing coun-
tries: toward a general theory of appropriate technology”, in W
Riedjik (editor) Appropriate Technology for Developing
Countries (Defth University Press, USA).
C Rowe (1986), People and Chips: the Human lmplications of
lnformation Technology (Paradigm Publishing, London).
ZSadar (198l), “Between GIN and TWIN: meeting the information
needs of the third world”, Aslib Proceedings, 33(2).
B Sherman (1980), “Unemployment and technology: a trade
union view”, in T Forrester (editor) The Microelectronics Rev-
olution (Basil Blackwell, London).
N Shitima (1986), “Informatics in the Republic of Zambia” ln-
formation Technology for Development, 1(3), September.
J Sigurdson and D Grandstrand (1984), “Field research notes”,
presented at the Third Conference on Technological and In-
dustrial Policy in China and Europe, Briefing.
A Silcox and B Green (1986), “Data communications networks in
Zimbabwe: a developing country perspective”, Information
Technology for Development, 1(3), September.
H Singer (1977), Technologies for Basic Needs (International
Labour Organisation, Geneva).
V Slamecka (1985), “Information technology and the third world”,
Journal of the American Society for lnformationScience, 36(3).
P Strassman (1985), lnformation Payoff, the Transformation of
Work in fheElectronic Age (Free Press).
P Thorpe (1984), “The impact of new information technology in
the developing countries”, Journal of lnformation Science,
8(5).
P Tigre (1983), The Bmilian Computer lndustry (Frances Pinter,
London).
MTodaro (1985), EconomicDevelopmentinthe ThirdWorld (Long-
man, London).
AToffler (1983), The Third Wave (William Collins Ltd, London).
G Tottle and Down (editors) (1983), Computing for Nation DeveC
opment, Conference Papers (Wiley).
United Nations (1971), The Application of Computer Technology
for Development, E/4800.
World Bank (1983), World DevelopmentReport.
A Zimbalist (1979), “Casestudies on the labour process”, Month/y
Review (London).
45