Michael-G.

-Aamodt-Industrial-
Organizational-Psychology-6th
Job Analysis
Foundation for human resources activities.
Essential for writing job descriptions, selecting employees, evaluating performance, and
conducting training programs.
Involves gathering, analyzing, and structuring information about a job's components and
requirements.

Employee Selection
Clear understanding of job tasks and competencies is crucial for selecting employees.
Job analysis helps in identifying requirements for tests and interview questions.
Training
Knowledge of job requirements from job analysis is necessary for designing training
programs.
Personpower Planning
Job analysis can determine worker mobility within an organization.
Helps in avoiding the "Peter Principle" by promoting individuals based on job analysis
results.
Performance Appraisal
Job analysis aids in constructing job-related performance appraisal instruments.
Specific, job-related categories lead to more accurate performance appraisals.
Job Classification
Job analysis helps classify jobs into groups based on similarities in requirements and
duties.
Useful for determining pay levels, transfers, and promotions.
Job Evaluation
Job analysis information can be used to determine the worth of a job.
Job Design
Job analysis assists in determining the optimal way a job should be performed.

Job analysis helps in eliminating wasted and unsafe motions, increasing productivity, and
reducing job injuries.
Example of Frank Gilbreth reducing motions needed to lay a brick from 18 to 4.5.
Compliance with legal guidelines requires basing employment decisions on job-related
information.
Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures emphasize the necessity of job
analysis.
 Court cases like Griggs v. Duke Power highlight the importance of job relatedness and
job analysis.
Organizational analysis during job analysis can reveal communication lapses within an
organization.
Example of job analyst Deborah Peggans discovering lack of performance evaluation
communication in a credit union.
Writing a good job description is a key outcome of job analysis.
Job descriptions should be detailed to facilitate decisions on selection and training.

Job description should be detailed to support decision-making on activities like selection and
training.
Job analysts conduct research to develop and validate physical performance, cognitive tests,
and medical guidelines.
Job analysis establishes the foundation for the validity of selection and promotion
procedures.
Job analysts need to learn the details of another person's job to be effective.
Involves visiting job sites, interviewing incumbents, and experiencing new environments.
Conducting a job analysis provides an understanding of ergonomic parameters affecting the
workplace and the worker.
Involves on-site measurements and observations to gather ergonomic data.
Job analysis showcases the ingenuity of the American workforce and advancements in work
environments.
Advice for conducting a job analysis includes getting involved in the process, learning about the
job, and being genuinely engaged.
Employment Profile of Deborah L. Gebhardt, Ph.D., President of Human Performance Systems,
Inc.

Importance of Job Title

Accurate title describes the nature of the job.
Helps in employee selection and recruitment.
Provides workers with identity and affects perceptions of job status and worth.
Gender Effects of Job Titles
Gender-neutral titles like "administrative assistant" are perceived as worth more money.
Titles with higher status are evaluated as worth more money.
Job Description Sections
Job title, brief summary, work activities, tools and equipment used, work context,
performance standards, compensation information, and personal requirements.
Job Descriptions and Salary
After three months of performing additional duties, a review is done to determine if a
salary increase is merited.

Components of Job Description

Brief summary, work activities, tools and equipment used, job context, work
performance, compensation information, and job competencies.
Work Activities Section
 Organized into meaningful categories for easy understanding.
Tools and Equipment Used Section
Lists tools and equipment separately for easier identification.
Job Context Section
Describes the work environment and relevant information.
Compensation Information Section
Contains details on salary grade, exempt status, and factors used for salary
determination.
Job Competencies Section
Includes knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics necessary for job success.

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Example of a Job Description
Bookkeeper at True Value Credit Union.
Work Activities of the Bookkeeper
Divided into functional areas like accounting, clerical, teller, and share draft activities.
Sample Job Description Sections
Accounting activities, clerical activities, teller activities, and share draft activities listed
with specific tasks.

Job Duties
Issues stop payments and sends copies to members
Deducts fees for overdrafts
Checks and records share drafts
Receives share draft totals from CUNA data
Makes decisions on covering overdrafts
Conducts collections activities for delinquent loans
Handles payroll and data-processing activities
Engages in financial operations activities
Tools and Equipment Used
Adding machine, computer, printer
Credit history machine, motor vehicle
Photocopy machine, folding machine
Microfiche reader

Job Context
Majority of time spent on entries in journals and ledgers
Works in a climate-controlled office with four coworkers
Minimal physical demands, requires sitting
Work hours: Monday-Friday, 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.
Work Performance
Evaluated annually by office manager
Criteria for excellent performance appraisal listed
Compensation Information
Grade: 6, FLSA Status: Not exempt
 Job Competencies
Requirements upon hire and after hire listed
Competencies divided into two subsections for hiring and training purposes

Preparing for a Job Analysis

Decisions Before Job Analysis
Who will conduct the analysis?
Options include HR department, job incumbents, supervisors, or outside sources

Job Analysis and Evaluation

Importance of Training in Job Analysis
Job analysts need to be professionally trained for accurate results.
Trained analysts produce different results compared to untrained ones.
Research supports the impact of training on job analysis results.
Challenges with Using Supervisors or Incumbents
Time constraints when using supervisors or incumbents for job analysis.
Difficulty in releasing supervisors and employees from other duties.
Example of Virginia's system where employees wrote job descriptions but lacked proper
training, leading to confusion.
Advantages and Drawbacks of Consultants
Consultants are well-trained and experienced for job analysis.
Consultants are expensive, charging between $50 and $200 per hour.
Organizations need to weigh the benefits of consultants against their cost.
Alternative to Consultants: College Interns
College interns, especially from I/O psychology programs, can conduct job analysis at a
lower cost.
Example of Radford University's program where graduate students provide job analysis
for non-profit agencies for free.
Similar programs at the University of Tulsa and the University of Southern Mississippi.

How Often Should a Job Description Be

Updated?
Frequency of Job Description Updates
Job descriptions should be updated when a job changes significantly.
High-tech jobs may require more frequent updates compared to jobs like package
handling.
Study by Vincent et al. (2007) on the stability of job descriptions over different intervals.
Reasons for Job Description Changes
Job crafting by employees leads to informal changes in job descriptions.
Employees tend to expand or modify their job tasks based on personal preferences.
Study on sales representatives showing a high percentage engaging in job crafting
within a year.
Which Employees Should Participate?
Organizations with few people in each job: All employees should participate in job analysis.
In organizations with many people in the same job, not every person needs to participate.
Determining number of participants:
Job analysts should interview incumbents until no new information is obtained, typically
after the third or fourth incumbent.
Committee-based vs. field-based job analysis:
Committee-based involves subject matter experts meeting to generate tasks, conditions,
and KSAOs.
Field-based involves individual interviews/observations of incumbents.
Studies comparison:
Studies suggest committee-based and field-based job analyses yield similar results.
Recommendations:
Rouleau and Krain suggest one session of four to six incumbents for jobs with fewer than
30 incumbents.
Green and Stutzman recommend a minimum of three incumbents.
Gael suggests six to ten incumbents.
Research findings:
Beatty's comparison showed similar job tasks and requirements with samples of 10 and
212 incumbents.
Other studies also found comparable results with different sample sizes.

Job Competence
High-performing vs. low-performing employees:
High-performing employees generated different job analysis outcomes compared to low-
performing employees.
Physical effort and expertise:
Ansoorian and Shultz found moderate differences in physical effort based on varying
levels of expertise.
Employee differences:
Variances in gender, race, job performance, experience, job enjoyment, and personality
can lead to slightly different job analysis outcomes.
Research findings:
Studies by Sanchez, Prager, Wilson, Viswesvaran, Mullins, Kimbrough, Landy, Vasey,
Prien, and Prien highlighted the impact of employee competence on job analysis
outcomes.

Job Analysis and Evaluation

Experienced employees rate tasks differently than less experienced employees.
Tough decision on which employees to include in job analysis.
Race
White and African American incumbents view jobs differently.
Job analysis ratings related to race of incumbent and coworkers.
 Gender
Possible differences in how men and women view their jobs.
Male middle-level managers more involved in finance-related tasks.
Education Level
Police officers with only a high school diploma less involved in court activities.
Personality
Personality traits rated important for the job vary based on incumbent's personality.
Viewpoint
Different perspectives (incumbent, supervisor, customer) lead to varied job analysis
results.

Choosing Employees for Job Analysis

Job can be performed in different ways by males and females.
Job analysis should include information about different styles.
Types of Information in Job Analysis
Decision on level of specificity in job analysis.
Formal versus informal requirements in job analysis.
Example of including informal requirements in job analysis for clarity and legality.

Job Analysis and Evaluation

Conducting a Job Analysis
Goal: Identify tasks, conditions, and KSAOs needed for job performance.
Strategy: Identify tasks performed, tools used, and conditions under which tasks are performed.
Gather existing information: job descriptions, task inventories, training manuals.
Interview subject matter experts (SMEs): job incumbents, supervisors, customers, upper-
level management.

Job Analysis Interviews

Individual and group interviews are common methods.
Guidelines for interviews:
Prepare in advance.
Establish rapport.
Ask open-ended questions.
Avoid being condescending.
Starting the interview: Ask the employee to describe their daily job routine.

Ammerman Technique
Panel of experts identifies objectives and standards.
List specific behaviors for each objective.
Identify critical behaviors.
Rank-order objectives by importance.
 Results: Set of important objectives and behaviors for employee selection, training, and
performance evaluation.

Observing Incumbents
Observation as a job analysis method.
Advantages: Allows the job analyst to observe job performance in the work setting.
Useful when used in conjunction with other methods like interviews.

Example of Ammerman Technique

Objectives and tasks for a bank teller:
Cross-sell bank products.
Study daily rate charts.
Explain new products to customers.
Balance drawer within 30 minutes at the end of the day.
Accurately count money.
Trial balance drawer during downtimes.
Comply with federal and state regulations.
Accurately complete paperwork.
Make each customer feel a "part of the family."

Observing Workers
Workers may forget to mention details during interviews.
Employees find it difficult to describe their job tasks.
Example: Difficulty in naming typewriter keys or gear locations.
Disadvantage: Being obtrusive and changing employee behavior.
Personal experience of being observed by an efficiency expert.
Job Participation
Analyzing a job by actually performing it.
Effective for understanding all aspects of a job.
Example of a supervisor who worked her way up.
Limitations in using supervisors or incumbents for job analysis.
Example of analyzing a firefighter's job through job participation.

Characteristics of Well-Written Task Statements

One action should be done to one object.
Task statements should be understandable by the job incumbent.
Consistency in tense and inclusion of tools/equipment used.
Avoiding competencies or policies in task statements.
Providing detailed information in task statements.
Including "Bogus Tasks"
Suggested to include irrelevant tasks in the task inventory.
Example of including fake tasks in a corrections officers' task inventory.
Rating Task Statements
Conducting task analysis by rating each task statement.
 Rating based on frequency and importance/criticality of the task.
Example of Task Statements
Comparison between poorly written and properly written task statements.

Task Analysis in Job Description

Two scales used: frequency of occurrence and importance.
Importance of a task like shooting a gun for a police officer.
Criteria for including tasks in job description and task inventory.
Example of Task Inventory Scales and Task Analysis Ratings provided.

Determining Essential KSAOs

KSAOs (Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other characteristics) needed for job
performance.
KSAOs now commonly referred to as competencies.
Process of competency modeling when tied to an organization’s strategic initiatives.
Methods to determine important KSAOs: logical linking tasks to KSAOs or using
prepackaged questionnaires.
Importance of determining when each KSAO is needed.
Structured methods to identify KSAOs: Job Components Inventory, Threshold Traits
Analysis, Fleishman Job Analysis Survey, critical incident technique, and Personality-
Related Position Requirements Form.
Selecting tests to tap KSAOs for new employee selection.

Scales Used to Rate KSAOs for Law Enforcement

Importance of KSAO
0: Not needed for graduation or job performance
1: Helpful for graduation or job performance
2: Important/essential for graduation or job performance
When KSAO Is Needed
0: Not needed
1: Needed after field training
2: Needed after graduation from the police academy
3: Needed at the time of hire
Methods for choosing KSAOs: samples, ability tests, personality tests, reference checks,
integrity tests, biodata, assessment centers
Weighting test scores based on average ratings obtained from Step 6

Using Other Job Analysis Methods

Alternative methods for job analysis: worker activities, tools and equipment used, work
environment, competencies
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
Developed at Purdue University
Contains 194 items in six main dimensions
Provides general information about worker activities
Relationships with Other Persons
Communication activities rated for importance to job completion
 Oral and written communication activities listed
Different aspects of interaction between people in various work settings

Overall, the transcript discusses the importance of KSAOs in law enforcement, methods for choosing
and weighting KSAOs, alternative job analysis methods like the PAQ, and communication activities
related to job completion.

PAQ Advantages
Inexpensive and time-efficient
Standardized job analysis method
Comparable results through computer analysis
PAQ Weaknesses
Written at a college graduate level
Limited sensitivity with only 194 questions and six dimensions
Similar profiles for different jobs
Job Structure Profile (JSP)
Revised version of PAQ
Emphasizes job analysts using the JSP
Job Elements Inventory (JEI)
Alternative to PAQ
Contains 153 items with a tenth-grade education readability level
Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
Designed by Fine for quick job analysis
Breaks down jobs into data, people, and things functions

Functional Job Analysis (FJA) Levels

Breaks down jobs into percentages of time spent on data, people, and things functions
Job Components Inventory (JCI)
Developed to leverage PAQ strengths
Covers tools and equipment, perceptual and physical requirements, etc.
Work Environment Information
Importance of understanding work conditions
AET for ergonomic job analysis
AET (Arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahren zur Tatigkeitsanalyse)
Developed in Germany
Focuses on worker-work object relationship

Occupational Information Network (O*NET)

National job analysis system to replace DOT
Views jobs at economic, organizational, occupational, and individual levels
O*NET Advancements
Incorporates information from various job analysis techniques
Comparison with Other Methods
Chart available on the text's webpage (not accessible due to copyright restrictions)

O*NET
Includes information about occupation and worker characteristics
 Provides data on economic factors like labor demand and salaries
Useful for both employers in selecting new employees and applicants in finding suitable
careers
Critical Incident Technique (CIT)
Developed by John Flanagan at the University of Pittsburgh
Used to identify job behaviors impacting success
Actual incidents of job behavior are crucial for distinguishing successful and unsuccessful
job performance

Critical Incident Technique Process

Job incumbents generate incidents of excellent and poor performance
Job experts examine and categorize these incidents
Incidents are sorted into categories by incumbents and job analysts
Categories and incident numbers are tallied to determine job dimensions' importance
Critical Incident Examples
Examples of excellent and poor performance incidents provided
Illustrates the importance of correctly categorizing incidents for job analysis

Job Components Inventory (JCI)

Provides information on skills needed for job performance
Includes perceptual, physical, mathematical, and communication skills
Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA)
Developed by Lopez, Kesselman, and Lopez
Identifies necessary traits for successful job performance
Focuses on physical, mental, learned, motivational, and social traits
Fleishman Job Analysis Survey
Based on over 30 years of research
Requires rating abilities needed for job performance
More detailed and commercially available compared to TTA
Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI)
Developed by Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, and Plamondon
Consists of 132 items
Assesses job adaptability traits for employees

Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI)

Consists of eight dimensions including handling emergencies, work stress, problem-
solving, etc.
Relatively new but has excellent reliability in distinguishing among jobs.
Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF)
Developed to identify personality types needed for job-related tasks.
Consists of 103 items tapping into 12 personality dimensions falling under the "Big 5"
personality dimensions.
Evaluation of Methods
Table 2.11 summarizes potential uses for each method in job analysis.
Different methods are best suited for different uses in job analysis.
 Comparative Research on Job Analysis Methods
Direct comparison of methods is challenging due to varying results in dimensions.
Survey research by Levine, Ash, and colleagues highlights opinions on different methods.
Different Abilities in Job Analysis
Written Comprehension involves reading and understanding written words, while Oral
Comprehension involves listening to spoken words.
Oral and Written Expression involve speaking or writing for others to understand.

Comparison of Job Analysis Methods

PAQ, CIT, and TTA are compared based on cost, time, quality of results, usefulness, and
overall job picture.
Job Evaluation
Involves determining internal and external pay equity after completing a job analysis.
Internal pay equity ensures fair pay for jobs within an organization based on their worth.

Determining Internal Pay Equity

Involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure fair pay based on job worth.
Factors like level of responsibility, physical and mental demands, education
requirements, etc., influence job evaluation.

Determining Compensation Factors

Compensable Factors Selection
Some argue for the importance of education, while others prioritize responsibility.
The choice of compensable factors is more philosophical than empirical.
Determining Levels for Each Factor
Education levels are easy to determine (e.g., high school diploma, bachelor's degree).
Responsibility levels may require more time and discussion.
Determining Factor Weights
Job evaluation committee assigns total points among factors based on importance.
Factors are weighted by assigning points, with more important factors receiving more
points.
Points are divided into levels within each factor based on the total points assigned.
Comparing Points to Salary
Job evaluation committee assigns points to job descriptions based on factors and levels.
Comparison of total points for a job with the current salary to determine underpaid or
overpaid status.
Wage trend lines are drawn based on a regression formula predicting salary by job
analysis points.

External Pay Equity and Market Position

Determining External Pay Equity
Organizations use salary surveys to compare their pay with the external market.
Surveys can be constructed internally or obtained from trade groups.
Helps in deciding the organization's market position in terms of compensation policies.
 Example of Completed Job Evaluation Results
Factors include Education, Responsibility, and Physical Demands with corresponding
points.
Salary comparison graph shows points distribution and wage trend line example.
Importance of External Equity
External equity is crucial for attracting and retaining employees.
Competitive compensation plans are necessary to match other organizations in the
market.

Salary Survey Results

Position: Assembly/Production Foreperson
Organizations with Position: 18
Number of Employees: 286
Weighted Average Salary: $18.85
Salary Range: $9.50 (Low) - $20.10 (High)
Market Position Importance
Crucial in a good economy with multiple job options
Organizations share salary information for competitiveness
Example: Roanoke County, Virginia
High turnover of police dispatchers
Identified neighboring city paying $2,500 more leading to resignations
Adjusting salaries reduced turnover significantly

Job Evaluation and Compensation

Job Worth vs. Individual Worth
Job evaluation focuses on job value, not individual's value
Setting Salary Ranges
Example: Market range $20,000 - $30,000, organization sets $27,000 - $37,000
Factors for individual salary placement: experience, skills, performance, etc.
Direct vs. Indirect Compensation
Direct compensation: salary amount
Indirect compensation: benefits like insurance, perks, retirement plans
Impact of Indirect Compensation
Job with lower direct compensation may be more valuable due to