1.

Formation of Elements during the Big Bang

a. the Big Bang event.

Big bang

Formation of Primordial Nuclei:

 In the extremely high-temperature and high-density conditions of the early universe,

approximately 10 seconds to 20 minutes after the Big Bang, the fundamental particles present
were primarily protons (hydrogen nuclei), neutrons, electrons, and photons.
 As the universe rapidly expanded and cooled, the extreme conditions allowed for nuclear
reactions to occur, resulting in the formation of the lightest elements: hydrogen (H), helium
(He), and trace amounts of lithium (Li) and beryllium (Be).
 The initial stages of BBN involved the fusion of protons and neutrons to form deuterium (an
isotope of hydrogen), helium-3, helium-4, and trace amounts of lithium and beryllium nuclei.

The primary nuclear reactions during BBN involved the fusion of protons and neutrons to form
deuterium (2H), helium-3 (3He), and helium-4 (4He).

 The most significant reactions included the fusion of two protons to form deuterium, the fusion
of deuterium with another proton to form helium-3, and the fusion of helium-3 nuclei to
produce helium-4.
 Due to the rapid expansion and cooling of the universe, these nuclear reactions ceased after
about 20 minutes, halting further nucleosynthesis of heavier elements.

Outcome of BBN:

 By the end of Big Bang nucleosynthesis, the universe was predominantly composed of hydrogen
(about 75%) and helium (about 25%), with only trace amounts of lithium and beryllium.
 These primordial abundances of light elements predicted by BBN are consistent with
observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation and the chemical composition of
the oldest stars and galaxies in the universe.
2. Formation of Elements during Stellar Evolution

a. formation of stars from collapsing molecular clouds.

b. the nuclear fusion reactions occurring within stars.

c. how stars synthesize heavier elements in their cores.

d. formation of elements up to iron in massive stars.

e. the role of supernova explosions in dispersing elements into space.

f. the enrichment of the interstellar medium with heavier elements.

3. Distribution of Chemical Elements and Isotopes

a. dispersion of elements and isotopes from stellar environments.

b. the role of supernovae in distributing elements across galaxies.

c. the incorporation of elements into newly forming planetary systems.

d. distribution of elements within galaxies, including in stars, planets, and interstellar medium.

e. he abundance variations of elements in different regions of the universe.

f. elements and isotopes are distributed throughout the cosmos, influencing the formation of celestial
bodies and the emergence of life.