11/9/2016

Overview: chapter 6, 7 & 8 Overview: chapter 6 


Major/frictional losses
Minor/local losses
Internal flow External flow Pipe flow
(Re, Eu, Ma)  C Drag   (Re) (Re, Eu)

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

Pipe flow
(6) Re  2300 Re  4000
(Re, Eu)

(10) Open channel flow
(Re, Fr)
 Fluid particles follow straight line  Fluid particles follow erratic paths
paths since fluid flows in thin layers which change direction in space and
Viscous flow over an object time
 Velocity profile flatten out and
Flow within boundary layer (7)  become more uniform (Turbulent
  flow mixes fluid)
 Inviscid flow outside boundary layer
(8)
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Overview: chapter 7
Flow within boundary layer (Prandtl’s theory)
(Re, Eu, Ma)  C Drag   (Re) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Prandtl

Flow on a flat surface Curved surface  Boundary layer thickness δ(x)

(Blasius solution) (Von-karman solution)  Drag coefficient Cd(x)

Curved surface
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Flat surface BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

1
 11/9/2016

Inviscid flow: chapter 8 Irrotational flow:

Flow outside boundary layer
    velocity potential function
A      (  )  0 ----- (1)
   2ω  (   ) 
B

x 
 x
  

Potential flow region y 
y
 
 (  )  0 
z 
z

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

2D irrotational flow:
  velocity potential function
  2  0  2  0 Viscous flow in pipes
    stream function
x  x 
x y 1 Chapter 6
 1
y  
y   2
y x 2
3

3

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

2
 11/9/2016

Contents: Pipe flow:

 Type of flow (laminar / turbulent flow in pipes) Pipe: Flow sections of circular cross-section
 Major and minor losses associated with pipe flow
 Darcy-Weisbach equation (Frictional/major losses)
 Minor losses
 Sudden expansion, contraction, elbows, joints, valves etc
 Pumping power requirement
Duct: Flow sections of non-circular cross-section

 Fully developed laminar flow in circular pipes (chapter 4)

Smaller diameter pipes are usually referred as tubes (Heat exchange).

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Importance of pipes Pipes

1. City water/our homes
2. Irrigation systems/sewer water system
3. Animal/plant circulation systems
4. Oil and crude supply lines

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

3
 11/9/2016

Simple flow circuit Laminar and turbulent flow:

Laminar: Highly ordered fluid Turbulent: Highly disordered fluid motion
motion with smooth stream lines characterized by velocity fluctuations and eddies.

1. Reynolds number Re  2300 1. Reynolds number Re  4000

 hL major  hL minor
2. Regular and predictable behavior 2. Irregular and chaotic behavior
 p 2  p 2 
  1  1  z1   h pump   2  2  z2   hL 3. Analytical solution possible 3. No analytical solutions exist
 ρg 2 g   ρg 2 g 

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Laminar vs turbulent flow: A turbulent flow is one that has:

Turbulence is of importance in the mixing of fluids
1. Smoke from a stack would continue for miles as 1. Most commonly encountered pipe flow
a ribbon of pollutant without rapid dispersion 2. To transfer the required heat between a solid and an adjacent fluid (such as in
within the surrounding air if the flow were the cooling coils of an air conditioner or a boiler of a power plant) would
laminar rather than turbulent. require an enormously large heat exchanger if the flow were laminar.
2. Although there is mixing on a molecular scale 3. Similarly, the required mass transfer of a liquid state to a vapor state (such as is
(laminar flow), it is several orders of magnitude needed in the evaporated cooling system) would require very large surfaces if
slower and less effective than the mixing on a the fluid flow flowing past the surface were laminar.
macroscopic scale (turbulent flow).
4. Reynolds number greater than 4000
5. Uniform velocity distribution compare to laminar flow
In other situations laminar (other than turbulent) flow is desirable
1. Pressure drop in pipes (hence, the power requirements for pumping) can be
considerably lower if the flow is laminar rather than turbulent.
2. Fortunately, the blood flow through a person’s arteries is normally laminar,
except in the largest arteries with high blood flow rates.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

4
 11/9/2016

Fully developed laminar flow: Fully developed laminar flow:

Basic pipe flow is governed by a balance between viscous and pressure forces.
1R 
  avg    z dA  max
A0 2
Hagen-Poiseuille equation

32 avg l
 p1  p2 
D2
p 2
 
l r

 p  D
w   
 l 4
p 2
p1 (r 2 )  ( p1  p)(r 2 )  (2rl)  0  
l r
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fully developed laminar flow: Turbulent flow :

p Darcy-Weisbach equation :

32 avg L
 p1  p2  L avg
2

D2  hf  f  f   (Re) For laminar flow

D 2g

 f   (Re, )
p1 12 p 2 u u  p1  p2 D
For turbulent flow
   z1  2  2  z2   2 1    hf
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g  g  ρg

32μ avg L Turbulent flow :

Darcy-Weisbach equation (1860):  hf 
ρgD 2 1. Most commonly encountered in pipe flows

L avg
2
2. Mixing is one positive application of turbulence
 hf  f ------ (6.10)
D 2g • Heat transfer

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

5
 11/9/2016

Problem 6.36: Home assignment :

SAE 30W oil at 20˚C (refer Table A-3) flows in the 3 cm diameter pipe as shown in
Fig, which slopes at 37˚. Assuming steady laminar flow, for the pressure
measurements shown, 1. Solved examples 6.3
1. Determine, whether the flow is up or down?
2. Determine the flow rate in m3/hr.
3. Suppose it is desired to add a pump between A and B to drive the oil upward
from A to B at a rate of 3 kg/s. At 100 percent efficiency, what pump power is
required?

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani Objectives:

Pilani Campus

1. Velocity profile: Laminar and turbulent flow

2. Frictional losses: Darcy-Weisbach equation : Eq 6.10
3. Colebrook equation: Eq 6.48 (For calculating friction factor)
4. Moody’s chart: Fig 6.13

Viscous flow in pipes

Lecture - 2

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

6

Laminar and turbulent flow:
Laminar: Highly ordered fluid Turbulent:
motion with smooth stream lines
Frictional losses in pipes :
German professor Julius Weisbach (1850) :  h f  fcn( L ,1avg
 2
L avg
 hf  f ------ (6.10)
D 2g
Darcy friction factor
French engineer Henry Darcy in 1857
 established the effect of roughness on pipe
resistance
 ε is wall surface roughness height, which is
important in turbulent pipe flow.
11/9/2016
Velocity profile in turbulent flow:
 Uniform velocity distribution
compare to laminar flow
Laminar flow velocity profile
Turbulent flow velocity profile
1. Power law variation
1 2. Logarithmic variation
u  r n
1   1   One seventh law is often used as a
u  r n Vc  R  reasonable approximation to measured
  1   velocity profiles across most of the
Vc  R  pipes.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Frictional losses in pipes :
.75 ̴ 2 
) Darcy friction factor f  fcn (Re, , duct shape )
D D

f  fcn (Re, , duct shape ) Laminar velocity profile
D  Viscous effects are important across
the entire pipe
Turbulent velocity profile
 Viscous layer thickness is comparable
to surface roughness height
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
7
 11/9/2016

Turbulent flow : Colebrook equation (1939):

Darcy-Weisbach equation :
L avg
2
32μ avg L 
 hf  f ------ (6.10)  hf   f   (Re, )
D 2g ρgD 2 D
64
For laminar flow  f   (Re)  f lam  ------ (6.13) 1  / D 2.51 
Re   2.0 log   ------ (6.48)
 3.7 Re f 

f  
For turbulent flow  f   (Re, ) ------ (6.48)
D Equation has to be solved by iteration for f.

At very large Reynolds number flows


1. complete turbulence or rough region  f  ( )
D
2. rough pipe limit

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Alternative explicit formula: Colebrook equation (1939):

 1  / D 2.51 
 Varies less than 2 percent from equation 6.48
 f   (Re, )  2.0 log   ------ (6.48)
D  3.7 Re f 
f  
1  6.9   / D 1.11 
  1.8 log    ------ (6.49) Table 6.1,
f  Re  3.7   page 381

Moody’s chart
Fig 6.13

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

8
 11/9/2016

Moody’s chart (1944) for pipe friction : Fig 6.13

 It is a log-log plot.

Pipes  f  ( )
D
Pipes
 For Re < 2000, flow is laminar and represented by a straight line f =
64/Re.
 For Re > 4000, flow is turbulent, and represented by many lines for f as
a function of Re and ε/d.
 Smooth pipe curve is a single curve dependent on Re only.

 f   (Re)
64

Re


 f   (Re, )
D

 At high Re, f is dependent on ε/d only, which indicates that viscous shear
Pipes
has negligible effect on the frictional loss. This region is called
“complete turbulence” or “rough zone”. Moody’s chart (1944) and Colebrook equation (1939):

1  / D 2.51 
  2.0 log  
 3.7 Re f 
f  

1. Colebrook equation is implicit in the dependence of f

2. Various inherent inaccuracies are involved
 Relative roughness
 Experimental data used to produce Moody’s chart
3. As a thumb rule 10 % accuracy is best expected

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

9
 11/9/2016

Moody’s chart (1944) for pipe friction : Fig 6.13

Ex 6.7: Pipes
Oil, with ρ = 900 kg/m3 and ν = 10-5 m2/s,
flows at 0.2m3/s through 500 m of 200
mm diameter cast iron pipe. Determine
1. The head loss due to friction and
2. The pressure drop if the pipe slopes down at 10˚ in the flow direction.

Table 6.1,
page 381

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Ex 6.7: Problem 6.53:

Oil, with ρ = 900 kg/m3 and ν = 10-5 m2/s,
flows at 0.2m3/s through 500 m of 200 Use Colebrook equation for friction factor.
mm diameter cast iron pipe. Determine
1. The head loss due to friction and 1  / D 2.51 
 2.0 log  (1)
 
2. The pressure drop if the pipe slopes down at 10˚ in the flow direction.  3.7 Re f 
f  

L avg
2
 hf  f The gutter and smooth drain pipe remove rainwater from
D 2g the roof of a building. The smooth (concrete) drain pipe is
7 cm in diameter.
(a) Estimate the rate of draining when the gutter is full.
p1  2 p 2 L 2 (b) The gutter is designed for sudden rainstorm upto 10
   z1  2   z2  f cm per hour. For this condition, what is the
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g D 2g maximum roof area that can be drained successfully?
p1  p2 L 2 p1  2 p 2 L 2
  f  ( z1  z 2 )    z1  2   z2  f
ρg D 2g ρg 2 g ρg 2 g D 2g (2)
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

10
 11/9/2016

Frictional losses in entry length : Frictional losses in entry length :

Le,laminar
 Le  f ( D,V , ρ, μ )   0.06 Re
D
 The pipes used in practice
 For Re = 20  Le, laminar  D are usually several times
Le,laminar the length of the entrance
  0.06 Re  At Re = 2300  Le,laminar  138D region, and thus the flow
D ------ (6.5) through the pipes is often
1 assumed to be fully
Le, turbulent developed for the entire
  4.4(Re) 6 length of the pipe.
D
1. The pressure drop is higher in the entrance regions of a pipe.  Recent CFD results (Fabien Anselmet)
2. The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be the distance from the 1
Le, turbulent
pipe entrance to where the wall shear stress reaches within 2 percent of the   1.6(Re) 4 ------ (6.6)
fully developed value. D
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani Colebrook equation (1939):

Pilani Campus

L avg
2
Darcy friction factor
 hf  f
 D 2g
f  fcn (Re, )
D
64
For laminar flow
 f   (Re)  f lam  ------ (6.13)
Re

1  / D 2.51 
For turbulent flow   2.0 log   ------ (6.48)
 3.7 Re f 
f  
Viscous flow in pipes
At very large Reynolds number flows
Lecture - 3 
1. rough pipe limit  f  ( )
2. complete turbulence or rough region D

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

11
 11/9/2016

Moody’s chart (1944) for pipe friction : Fig 6.13


Pipes Rough pipe limit
 f  ( )
D
Minor or Local losses in pipe systems:
Sudden expansion/contraction, sharp entrance/exit, valves, elbows, joints etc
Sudden expansion Assumptions:
1. Constant pressure across the left hand side of the CV (pwall = p1)
2. No wall shear stress
 f   (Re)
64 pwall  p1

Re m
  ρV1 A1  ρV2 A2

 p1 A1  ( pwall )( A2  A1 )  p2 A2  m (V2  V1 )

 ( p1  p2 ) A2  (ρV22 A2  ρV12 A1 )

 f   (Re, )
D p1  p2 A
  V22  V12 1 Problem (3.59)
ρ A2
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Sudden expansion: Fig 6.22: SE/SC Sudden expansion and contraction losses
based on velocity head
pwall  p1 p1  p2 A
  V22  V12 1 ------ (1) 
2
A   d2 
2
ρ A2  k SE  1  1   1  2 
 A2   D 
A1
 V2  V1 ------ (2) ------ (6.101)
A2

V2
 hloss  k
u u p  p2 V12  V22 2g
 ( 2 1 )  hL minor  1   ( z1  z2 ) ------ (3)
g ρg 2g  d2 
 k SC  0.421  2 
2  D 
1 2 A V2 V2  2  2
 hL minor
V2  V12 1  1  2   V1 1  A1   k SE V1 ------ (6.101)

g A2 2 
2  
2 g  A2   2g
------ (6.102)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

12
 11/9/2016

Fig 6.21 (b): entrance losses Valves: Fig 6.17: Typical commercial valve geometries (a) gate valve (b) globe valve
(c) angle valve (d) swing-check valve (e) disk-type gate valve
Sharp entry

Rounded entry Beveled entry

(a) (b)
(c)

 Exit losses are k ~ 1

for all shapes of exit
(sharp, beveled, or
rounded)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Screwed valves and Flanged valves Table 6.5: Resistance Coefficients for Open Valves, Elbows and Tees

(a)

(d)

1. These fittings may be connected by either internal threads or flanges.

2. Table 6.5 represents losses averaged among various manufacturers, so there is
(b) (c)
an uncertainty as high as ± 50 percent.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

13
 11/9/2016

Fig 6.18b: Fig 6.18b:

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fig 6.20: smooth walled 45˚, 90˚, 180˚ bends Fig 6.20: rough walled 90˚ bends

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

14
 11/9/2016

Loss K
V2 V2
Ex 6.16: Sharp entrance
Open globe valve
0.5
6.9
h minor K
2g
 13.6
2g
Water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and ν = 1x10-6 m2/s, is pumped between two reservoirs at 0.3 m bend 0.25
0.0057 m3/s through 120 m of 5 cm diameter pipe and several minor losses, as Regular 90˚ elbow 0.95
shown in Fig. The roughness ratio is ε/d = 0.001. Compute the Half open gate valve 4
1. Major loss
L V2 V2 Sharp exit 1
2. Total minor loss  hloss   f K
3. Pump horsepower required. D 2g 2g  p 2  p 2 
  1  1  z1   h pump   2  2  z2   hmajor  hminor
 ρg 2 g   ρg 2 g 

1. Sharp entrance
2. Open globe valve
3. 0.3 m bend
4. Regular 90˚ elbow
5. Half open gate valve
6. Sharp exit
58
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Pipe flow problems: BITS Pilani

Pilani Campus

Three most common types of problems

Viscous flow in pipes

Lecture - 4

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

15
 11/9/2016

Fig 6.23: Gradual expansion

Fig 6.22: Sudden expansion and contraction losses Pipes Gibson’s correlation

1. Minimum loss lies in the region of 5  2  15 , which

is the best geometry for an efficient diffuser
2
2. For angles less than  d2 
 k diffuser  2.61sin  1    f L -- (6.82)
5°, the diffuser is too  D2  d avg
long and has too much  
friction
3. Angles greater than
15° cause flow
k Gradual expansion
V2 separation
 hloss  k
2g

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Gradual expansion: Gradual contraction losses

 Increasing pressure in the diffuser is
an unfavorable gradient, which
causes the viscous boundary layer
to break away from the wall.
(flow separation)
2 15
 A fluid may be accelerated very efficiently, but is very difficult to slow down
a fluid efficiently
 Gradual expansion, sudden expansion and exit losses are more compare to
Angle (2θ) 30° 45° 60°
gradual contraction, sudden contraction, and entrance losses respectively k 0.02 0.04 0.07

Article 6.12: Fluid meters – Reading assignment

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

16
 11/9/2016

Ex:
A 7.5-cm-diameter potable water line is to be run through a maintenance room in a
commercial building. Three possible layouts for the water line are proposed, as
shown in Fig. (Use ρwater = 1000 kg/m3, υwater = 1×10-6 m2/s)
Which is the best option, based on minimizing losses? Arrange these layouts in
order of best to worst option. Assume galvanized iron pipe, and a flow rate of 350
L/min.
Ex:
Water from a treatment plant is pumped into a distribution system at a rate of 4.38
m3/sec, a pressure of 480 kPa, and a temperature of 20˚C. The diameter of the pipe
is 750 mm and is made of cast iron.
1. Estimate the pressure 200 m downstream of the treatment plant if the pipeline
remains horizontal.
2. After 20 years in operation, scale buildup is expected to cause the equivalent
surface roughness of the pipe to increase by a factor of 10. Determine the effect
on water pressure 200 m downstream of the treatment plant.

(a) Two 45˚ bends (b) A regular 90˚ screwed (c) Three regular 90˚ screwed
(Bend radius R = 0.375 m) elbow elbows
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Ex: Ex: 6.112

As shown in Fig, there are 40 m (length) of 5 cm (diameter) pipe, 25 m of 10 cm pipe
and 50 m of 7.5 cm pipe, all commercial new steel. There are three 90˚ regular elbows
(one elbow is used to direct the water into the turbine is not shown in the sketch) and a
fully open gate valve, all screwed. The exit elevation is zero. The water flow rate is 16
m3/hr. Assume sharp entrance and exits. Interpolate the data wherever necessary. Take
ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 and υwater = 10-6 m2/s.
1. Tabulate all minor loss coefficients involved.
2. Calculate the total minor losses.
3. Calculate the total frictional losses. (Use Moody's chart for friction factor f
calculation)
4. Determine the turbine power output (in watt).
A 70 percent efficient pump delivers water at 20°C from one reservoir to another 6
m higher, as in Fig. The piping system consists of 18 m of galvanized iron 5-cm
pipe, a reentrant entrance, two screwed 90° long-radius elbow, a screwed open gate
valve (not shown in Fig), and a sharp exit. What is the input power required with
and without a 6° well-designed conical expansion added to the exit? The flow rate is
40m3/hr.
Reentrant Sharp entry
6m

k = 0.8 k = 0.5

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

17