5.

2 Fluid Transport 121

6. The Nanzenji aqueduct water channel of Kyoto,

Japan (Fig. 5.9).
The profile and typical cross-sections of a supply conduit
are shown in Fig. 5.10. Static heads and HGLs are indicated
for pressure conduits.

5.2 FLUID TRANSPORT

The hydraulic design of supply conduits is concerned chiefly
with (a) resistance to flow in relation to available and needed
heads or pressures and (b) required and allowable velocities
of flow relative to cost, scour, and sediment transport. In
long supply lines, frictional or surface resistance offered by
the pipe interior is the dominant element. Form resistance
responsible for losses in transitions and appurtenances is
often negligible. In short transport systems, on the other hand,
form resistance may be of controlling importance.

5.2.1 Rational Equation for Surface Resistance

The most nearly rational relationship between velocity of
flow and head loss in a conduit is also one of the earliest.
Generally referred to as the Darcy–Weisbach formula, it is
actually written in the form suggested by Weisbach, rather
than Darcy, namely,
Figure 5.9 Water channel of the Nanzenji aqueduct, Kyoto, Japan
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nanzenji_aqueduct_ hf = f (L∕d)(v2 ∕2g) (5.10a)
channel.jpg). 2
hf = KQ (5.10b)

Gate
Dam house Construction
Static pressure line
Gate house shafts Static pressure
1 Hydraulic grade line
Canal Distribution or
2 Hydraulic 3
Pressure grade line 3 3 service reservoir
Gate house
aqueduct Grade 4
aqueduct Grade Down Static pressure
Profile tunnel shaft
Original surface Up shaft Hydraulic
Original surface
5 grade line
6 City
Pressure Pipe
tunnel siphon
1. Lined canal 7
Original Pipe lines
surface

2. Reinforced concrete
pressure aqueduct

Original surface 3. Cut-and-cover

grade aqueduct

4. Grade tunnel
5. Pressure tunnel

6. Steel pipe siphon 7. Pipe line

Figure 5.10 Profile and typical cross-sections of a water supply conduit.

122 Chapter 5 Water Hydraulics, Transmission, and Appurtenances

Figure 5.11 Moody diagram with the friction factor f, as a function of Reynolds number R, in Darcy–Weisbach formula for flow in
conduits.

√
where hf is the head loss in ft (m) (energy loss because of R∕ f with scales for f and R added for convenience in
surface resistance) in a pipe of length L in ft (m) and diame- finding f for use in Eq. (5.10a).
ter d in ft (m) through which a fluid is transported at a mean In reference to R and 𝜀∕r,:
velocity v in ft/s (m/s) and flow rate Q in ft3 /s (m3 /s); g is the
1. Laminar flow persists until R = 2,000, and the f:R
acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2 ); f is a dimen-
relationship is quite simply as follows:
sionless friction factor (see Fig. 5.11); and K = 8fL∕𝜋 2 gd5 .
In the more than 100 years of its existence, use, and study, f = 64∕R (5.12a)
this formulation has been foremost in the minds of engineers Reynolds number R and friction factor f are dimen-
concerned with the transmission of water as well as other sionless.
fluids. That this has often been so in a conceptual rather than
a practical sense does not detract from its importance. 2. Above R = 4,000, turbulent flow is fully established,
Within Eq. (5.10a), the dimensionless friction factor f and the single trace for laminar flow branches into a
is both its strength and its weakness in applications—its family of curves for increasing values of 𝜀∕r above
strength as a function of the Reynolds number R, a lower boundary that identifies the f:R relationship
for smooth pipes as
R = vd𝜌∕𝜇 = vd∕𝜐 (5.11) √ √
1∕ f = 2 log R f − 0.8 (5.13)
where 𝜇 is the absolute viscosity, 𝜐 = 𝜇∕𝜌 is the kinematic
viscosity of the fluid, and 𝜌 is its density; its weakness as 3. For rough pipes, the relative roughness 𝜀∕r takes
a function of relative roughness 𝜀∕r, where 𝜀 is a measure command and
of absolute roughness and r is the inside radius of the pipe √
1∕ f = 2 log r∕𝜀 + 1.74 (5.14)
(2𝜀∕d = 𝜀∕r). The f:R relationship is shown in Fig. 5.11, a
general resistance diagram for flow in uniform conduits. This where r is the radius of the pipe (ft or m) and 𝜀∕r is
√
diagram evolves from a logarithmic plot of 1∕ f against the relative roughness, dimensionless.
 5.2 Fluid Transport 123

4. In the critical zone between R = 2,000 and R =
4,000, both R and 𝜀∕r make their appearance in
the semiempirical equation of Colebrook and White
(1937–1938):
√ √
1∕ f = 1.74 − 2 log (𝜀∕r + 18.7∕R f )
The magnitudes of absolute roughness 𝜀 in the f:R and
f:(𝜀∕r) relationships depend on the angularity, height, and
other geometrical properties of the roughness element and its
distribution. Common magnitudes of 𝜀∕r have been evalu-
ated for large pipes by Bradley and Thompson (1951).
Despite the logic and inherent conceptual simplicity of
the combination of friction-factor diagram and Weisbach
formulation, there are important reasons why water engi-
neers do not make use of them for the routine solution
of fluid transport problems encountered in water transmis-
sion lines and pipe networks. Among the reasons are the
following:
1. Because the relative roughness 𝜀∕r is a key to f, it
is not possible to find r (or d) directly when hf , v
(5.15)
or Q, 𝜀, and water temperature (or 𝜐) are given. A
trial-and-error solution is required.
2. Because transmission lines may include noncircular
as well as circular conduits, additional f:R diagrams
are needed.
3. Because entry 2 also often applies to partially filled
sections, additional diagrams are also necessary for
them. For such sections, moreover, trial-and-error
solutions must be performed whenever the depth of
flow is unknown.

EXAMPLE 5.15 HEAD LOSS FOR LAMINAR FLOW

This example introduces Poiseuille’s equation for laminar flow when Reynolds number R is smaller than or equal to 2,000.
hf = (32𝜇Lv)∕(𝛾d2 ) = (32𝜐Lv)∕(gd2 ) (5.12b)
where

hf = head loss, ft, m

𝜇 = absolute viscosity
d = pipe diameter, ft, m
𝛾 = specific weight, 62.4 lb/ft3 , 9.8 kN/m3 for water
L = pipe length, ft, m
v = average velocity, ft/s, m/s
𝜐 = 𝜇/𝜌 = kinematic viscosity
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s2 , 9.81 m/s2

Develop Eqs. (5.10a) and (5.12a) using Poiseuille’s equation (Eq. 5.12b) shown above.

Solution:
hf = (32𝜇Lv)/(𝛾d2 ) = (32𝜐Lv)/(gd2 ) = (32𝜐Lv)/(gd2 )(2v∕2v).
hf = (64𝜐/vd)(L/d)(v2 ∕2g) = (64∕R)(L/d)(v2 ∕2g) = f(L/d)(v2 ∕2g).
hf = f(L/d)(v2 ∕2g), which is Eq. (5.10a).
f = 64∕R, which is Eq. (5.12a).

f and R are the resistance coefficient and the Reynolds number, respectively.

EXAMPLE 5.16 VELOCITY, REYNOLDS NUMBER, AND HEAD LOSS UNDER LAMINAR FLOW CONDITIONS
The elevation of reservoir A’s water surface is 210 m (688.98 ft), while the elevation of reservoir B’s water surface is 200 m
(656.17 ft). The two reservoirs are connected by a pipe which is 610 m (2,001.31 ft) long and 5 mm (0.0164 ft) in diameter.
Assume (a) water flows from reservoir A to reservoir B under laminar flow conditions; (b) 𝛾 = 9.8 kN/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3 ; and (c) 𝜇 =
1.003 × 10−3 N-s/m2 = 2.05 × 10−5 lb-s/ft2 at 20◦ C (68◦ F). Determine the velocity, the Reynolds number, and head loss per unit
length.