MID8112 – Applied

Hydraulics
Flow in Closed Conduits

Prepared by: (Samson Rwahwire, PhD), rbsjunior@gmail.com; 0776369920

Revised by: (Wilson Babu Musinguzi, PhD, Wilson.musinguzi@gmail.com;
0774076181
 Introduction
Much of our water supply is through
conduits…such as: water for irrigation,
household use, sewage and other fluids such as
oil and gas.

Flow in conduits is analyzed using the Energy

equation as well as in scenarios where there are
frictional losses.

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 Introduction cont’d…
◼ The flow of water in a conduit may be
either open channel flow or pipe flow.
◼ Open channel flow must have a free
surface subjected to atmospheric
pressure whereas pipe flow has none.
◼ In pipe flow, there is no direct
atmospheric flow but hydraulic pressure
only.

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 Differences between Open
Channel and Closed conduit flow

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Laying of National Water and Sewage Corporation
(NWSC) pipelines in Uganda
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Steady Uniform Flow in conduits
V2 P
ET =  + +z
2g g

z: geometric head
P/g: pressure head
V2/2g: velocity head

▪A line plotted of total head versus distance

through a system is called the total energy line
(TEL). The TEL is also known as energy grade line
(EGL).
▪The sum of the elevation head and pressure head
yields the hydraulic grade line (HGL).
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 Steady Uniform Flow in
conduits…
▪In a uniform pipeline, the total shear
stress (resistance to flow) is constant along
the pipe resulting in a uniform degradation
of the total energy or head along the
pipeline.

▪The total head loss along a specified

length of pipeline is referred to head loss
due to friction and denoted as hf.

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 Resistance Application & Friction Losses in
Pipes
General Resistance Equation:
from computing the shear stress of a system in dynamic equilibrium

t = g R Sf

t : Boundary shear stress (N/m2)

g : Specific weight of water (N/m3)

R : Hydraulic radius (m)

Sf : Slope of energy grade line

Forces acting on steady closed conduit flow.

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 Consider the length of pipe to be a control
volume & realize the dynamic equilibrium

P: wetted perimeter
- Dividing this equation by area (A)

R: hydraulic radius (A / P)

→ Piezometric head change

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 Change in the hydraulic grade line & also equal to the
energy loss across the pipe

Refered to as the
friction loss
For circular pipes:

Since ; then

t = g R Sf Sf : energy grade line

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Resistance Equations for Steady Uniform Flow

Now a method needed for “ shear stress ↔ velocity ”

From dimensional considerations;

a : constant related to boundary roughness

V : average cross-sectional velocity

Inserting this to the general shear relation,

Solving for V,

Chezy Equation
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- A general flow function relating flow parameters to
the change in piezometric head in pipes:

- In case of steady uniform flow; the left side equals to friction loss (hf)

Darcy-Weisbach Equation

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Resistance Application & Friction Losses in
Pipes
From dimensional analysis: Resistance Equation
in terms of the average velocity
V =C RS f Chezy Equation

In most cases of closed conduit flow, it is customary

to compute energy losses due to resistance by use of
the Darcy-Weishbach equation.

2
LV
hf = f
d 2g
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Development of an analytical relation btn shear stress & velocity

- We earlier had the following relations for the friction loss:

&

For a general case, using d = 4R;

After simplifying;

The friction factor is directly proportional to the

boundary shear stress
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- Let`s define “shear velocity” as

Then the above equation becomes

→ important in developing the resistance formula

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Velocity Distributions in Steady, Uniform Flow
Laminar Flow Re ≤ 2000
Turbulence Flow Re ≥ 4000

Typical laminar & turbulent velocity distribution for pipes:

To start for velocity profile, let`s recall Newton`s law of viscosity

→ governs flow in the laminar region

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 Laminar Flow
Velocity in terms of radial position:

→ paraboloid distribution

Head loss in a pipe element in terms of average velocity:

Energy loss gradient or friction

slope

represents the rate of energy dissipation due to boundary shear stress or friction
- Laminar flow case is governed by the Newtonian viscosity principle.

32VL
hf = → Poiseuille Equation
gd 2
- Darcy friction factor: f = 64 / Rn in laminar flow 2-18
 Turbulent Flow

- More complex relations btw wall shear stress & velocity distribution

- In all flow cases, Prandtl showed “laminar sub-layer” near the boundary

- The thickness of laminar boundary layer decreases as the Re # increases

- Flow is turbulent outside of the boundary layer

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 Turbulent Flow
After statistical and dimensional considerations, Von Karman gives
logarithmic dimensionless velocity distribution as

 1 y
= ln +C General form for turbulent
 *
k yo velocity distributions

 : instantaneous velocity
* : shear velocity
k : von Karman constant (= 0.4 for water)
y : distance from boundary
yo : hydraulic depth
C : constant 2-20
Turbulent Flow velocity distribution
1) For smooth-walled conduits

 1 yv * Function of the laminar sub-layer

= ln + 5 .5 properties (wall Reynolds number)
 *
k v

2) For rough-walled conduits

 1 y
= ln + 8.48 Function of the wall roughness
 *
k  element

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 Friction Factor in Turbulent flow
Using velocity distribution given previously & shear stress/velocity relation,
it is possible to solve for friction factor:
In smooth pipes

1
= 2 Log (Re f ) − 0 .8 Von Karman & Prandtl equation
f

In rough pipes
1
= 2 Log ( ro /  ) + 1.74 Nikuradse rough pipe equation
f

1
= 2 Log (d /  ) + 1.14 Nikuradse rough pipe equation
f in terms of pipe diameter
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 Friction Factor in Turbulent flow
Transition region: Characterized by a flow regime in a particular
case follow neither the smooth nor rough pipe
formulations

- Colebrook & White proposed the following semi-empirical function:

1 r /
− 2 log( r /  ) = 1.74 − 2 log(1 + 18.7 )
f Rn f

Note that all analytical expressions are nonlinear; so it is cumbersome to solve !

Lewis Moody developed graphical plots of f as given in preceding expressions

☺
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 Moody Diagram

Figure 8.4: Friction factors for flow in pipes, the Moody diagram
(From L.F. Moody, “Friction factors for pipe flow,” Trans. ASME2-24
,
 How to Read the Moody Diagram
♦ The abscissa has the Reynolds number (Re) as the
ordinate has the resistance coefficient f values.

♦ Each curve corresponds to a constant relative

roughness ks/D (the values of ks/D are given on the right
to find correct relative roughness curve).

♦ Find the given value of Re, then with that value move
up vertically until the given ks/D curve is reached. Finally,
from this point one moves horizontally to the left scale to
read off the value of f.

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 Empirical Resistance Equations
Blasius Equation:
0.316 In case of smooth-walled pipes;
f = 0.25 very accurate for Re <100,000
Rn

Manning’s Equation: (special case of Chezy)

1 1/ 6 n : coefficient which is a function

C= R of the boundary roughness and
n hydraulic radius

Velocity: (used in open-channels)

1 2 / 3 0 .5
For the SI unit system V= R S
n
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 Empirical Resistance Equations
Manning’s Equation:
1.485 2 / 3 0.5
V= R S
n

1. Manning’s n is not be a function of turbulence characteristic or Re

number but varies slightly with the flow depth (through the hydraulic
radius)
2. In view of (1), therefore one can say that the Manning equation would
be strictly applicable to rough pipes only, although it has frequently
been employed as a general resistance formula for pipes.
3. It is, however, employed far more frequently in open-channel
situations.

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 Empirical Resistance Equations
Hazen-Williams Equation:
R: hydraulic radius of pipe
V = CHW R 0.63
S 0.54
f
Sf : friction slope
CHW : resistance coefficient
(pipe material & roughness conditions)

Important Notes:
1. Widely used in water supply and irrigation works
2. Only valid for water flow under turbulent conditions.
3. It is generally considered to be valid for larger pipe (R>1)
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 Empirical Resistance Equations

•Three well-known 1-D resistance laws are the

Manning, Chezy & Darcy-Weisbach resistance
equations

• The interrelationship between these equations is

as follows:

f n 1 RS f
= 1/ 6 = =
8g R C V
 Minor Losses in Pipes
◼ Energy losses which occur in pipes are due to
boundary friction, changes in pipe diameter or
geometry or due to control devices such as valves
and fittings.
◼ Minor losses also occur at the entrance and exits
of pipe sections.
◼ Minor losses are normally expresses in units of
velocity head
2 kl : Loss coefficient associated with a
V
hl = kl particular type of minor loss and a
function of Re, R/D, bend angle, type
2g of valve etc.
NWSC piping, bends and valves @ Ggaba

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Ggaba Water Plant

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 Minor Losses in Pipes
◼ In the case of expansions of cross-sectional
area, the loss function is sometimes written in
terms of the difference between the velocity
heads in the original and expanded section
due to momentum considerations;
For Gradual Expansion

hl = ke
(V1 − V2 )
2

2g
ke: expansion coefficient
 Minor Losses in sudden
expansions

hl =
(V
1 − V2 )
2

2g

For Sudden Expansion

Head loss is caused by a rapid increase in the pressure head

Minor Losses in sudden contraction

2
V2
hl = kl
2g
Head loss is caused by a rapid decrease in the pressure head
 Expansion and contraction coefficients
for threaded fittings
The magnitude of energy loss is a function of the degree and abruptness
of the transition as measured by ratio of diameters & angle θ in Table 8.3.

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 Coefficients of entrance loss for pipes

Coefficients of entrance loss for pipes (after Wu et al., 1979).

Entrance loss coefficient is strongly affected by the nature of the entrance

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 Summary for minor losses

Please see Table 4 & 5 of Fluid

Mechanics & Hydraulics by Ranald V
Giles et al. (Schaum’s outlines
series)

Copyright © Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics by Ranald V Giles et. al. (Schaum’s outlines series)
Bend Loss Coefficients

r : radius of bend

d: diameter of pipe

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Loss coefficients for
Some typical valves

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 Pipes in Parallel

• Head loss in each pipe must be equal to obtain the same

pressure difference btw A & B (hf1 = hf2)

• Procedure: “trial & error”

• Assume f for each pipe → compute V & Q

• Check whether the continuity is maintained

 Pipe Networks
The need → to design the original network
to add additional nodes to an existing network

The problem is to determine

Two guiding principles (each loop):
flow & pressure at each node
1- Continuity must be maintained

Q i =0
2- Head loss btw 2 nodes must be
independent of the route.

h fC =  h fCC

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 Pipe Networks
Consider 2-loop network: Procedure: (inflow + outflow + pipe
characteristics are known)

1- Taking ABCD loop first, Assume Q

in each line
2- Compute head losses in each pipe
& express it in terms of Q

For the loop:

The difference is known:

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 Practice Problems
Tutorial II Tutorial III
◼ APPLICATIONS OF ◼ FLOW IN CLOSED
BERNOULLI AND CONDUITS
ENERGY EQUATIONS

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