Tractor functions

• The provision of up to full power in the form of a large drawbar pull, at low speeds. The
highly variable loading that occurs in agricultural work requires consideration of tractor
performance at part load, particularly with respect to fuel consumption.
• The provision of power for driving and control of a range of implements and machines
performing various tasks and attached in a variety of ways.
• The provision of power as the basis for a transport system in both on- and off-road
conditions

Power train of tractor

TRACTOR DRAWBAR PERFORMANCE

Is also known as drawbar pull which is defined as the amount of horizontal force available for
accelerating or pulling a load.
Generally, it tends to decreases as the speed of the tractor or any vehicle increases. Drawbar pull
is also the difference between tractive effort available and tractive effort required to overcome
resistance at a specific speed.
Factors affecting drawbar performance of a tractor
• Engine speed
• Gear ratio
• Weight on the wheel related to the tractor
• Implement width related to the implement

Power losses occur when transmitting engine power through the drive wheels, the PTO shaft,
and the hydraulic system. If Flywheel power is known, multiply it by 0.9 to estimate PTO power.

1
Drawbar power is the power transferred through the drive wheels or tracks to move the tractor
and implement. You can estimate Drawbar power by multiplying the PTO power by the
appropriate value from the table below:

Tractor Type Concrete Firm Soil Tilled Soil Soft Soil

2-wheel drive 0.87 0.72 0.67 0.55
Front wheel assist 0.87 0.77 0.73 0.65
4-wheel drive 0.88 0.78 0.75 0.70
Tracks 0.88 0.79 0.80 0.78

Slippage of drive wheels on soil surfaces is a power loss. Travel reduction, or slip (s), is
calculated from:

S = ((An - A1)/An) * 100

where:

• S is slip, percent;
• An is the advance under no load conditions per wheel or track revolution, m(ft);
• A1 is the advance under actual load conditions per wheel or track revolution, m(ft).

Tractive efficiency (TE) is the ratio of drawbar power to axle power and can be estimated when
slip is known. TE (and hence tire efficiency) of a wheel can be predicted using a series of
equations that take into account tire dimensions, soil conditions, slip, etc. Tractor performance is
calculated by summing the individual wheel performances. Maximum TE is obtained with slip
ranges of:

4-8% for concrete;

8-10% for firm soil;
11-13% for tilled soil;
14-16% for soft soils and sands.

Implement (machine) power requirements

Draft (D) is the total force parallel to the direction of travel that is required to pull the
implement. Both functional draft (soil and crop resistance) and draft required to overcome rolling
resistance of the implement are included.

Draft force required to pull many seeding implements and minor tillage tools operated at shallow
depths is primarily a function of the width of the implement and the speed at which it is pulled.
For tillage tools operated at deeper depths, draft also depends upon soil texture, depth, and
geometry of the tool. Typical draft requirements can be calculated as:

D = F*I [ A + B + C(S)2] W*T

2
where:

• D is implement draft, N (lbf);

• F is a dimensionless soil texture adjustment parameter (table 1);
• i = 1 for fine, 2 for medium and 3 for coarse textured soils;
• A, B and C are machine-specific parameters (table 1);
• S is field speed, km/h (mile/h).
• W is machine width, m (ft) or number of rows or tools (table 1);
• T is tillage depth, cm (in.) for major tools, or equals one for minor tillage tools
and seeding implements.

Motion resistance becomes appreciable when heavy implements are used in soft or loose soils.
Tire parameters and wheel loadings must be known or assumed to calculate this value. Total
implement motion resistance is computed as the sum of the individual wheel values.

Drawbar power for tractor-powered implements (and propulsion power for self-propelled
implements) is computed as:

Pdb = Ds / 3.6

where: Pdb is drawbar power required for the implement(kW), D is implement draft(kN) and s is
travel speed(km/h).

or,

Pdb = Ds / 375

where: Pdb is drawbar power required for the implement(hp), D is implement draft(lb), and s is
travel speed(mph).

Power-takeoff (PTO) power is power required by the implement from the PTO shaft of the
tractor or engine. Typical PTO power requirements can be determined using rotary power
requirement parameters available from a number of sources. Implement power take-off power
can be calculated as

Ppto = a + bw + cF

where:

• Ppto is power-takeoff power required by the implement kW (hp);

• w is implement working width, m (ft);
• F is material feed rate, t/h(ton/h) wet basis;
• a, b, and c are machine specific parameters (Table 2)

Hydraulic power is the fluid power required by the implement from the hydraulic system of the
tractor or engine. Implements hydraulic power can be computed as
3
Phyd = pF/1000

where:

• Phyd is hydraulic power required by the implement, kW;

• F is fluid flow, L/s;
• p is fluid pressure, kPa;

or,

Phyd = pF/1714

where:

• Phyd is hydraulic power required by the implement, hp;

• F is fluid flow gal/min;
• p is fluid pressure, psi.

Electric power is required to operate components of some implements. To compute implement

electric power

Pel = IE/1000

where:

• Pel is electric power required by the implement, kW;

• I is electric current, A;
• E is electric potential, V;

or,

Pel = IE/746

where:

• Pel is electric power required by the implement, hp;

• I is electric current, A;
• E is electric potential, V;

Total power requirement for operating implements (drawn or selfpropelled) is the sum of
implement power components converted to equivalent PTO power. Total implement power
requirement can be computed as

PT = (Pdb/ EmEt) + Ppto + Phyd + Pel

where:

4
 • PT is total implement power requirement, kW (hp);
• Et is traction efficiency (expressed as a decimal);
• Pdb is drawbar power required for the implement, kW (hp);
• Phyd is hydraulic power required by the implement, kW (hp);
• Ppto is power-takeoff power required by the implement, kW (hp);
• Pel is electric power required by the implement, kW (hp);
• Em is mechanical efficiency of the transmission and power train.
• This coefficient is typically 0.96 for tractors with gear transmissions.

NOTE: Additional power is required to accelerate and overcome changes in topography, soil and
crop conditions. Additional power is also required for operator-related equipment such as
hydraulic control systems, air conditioning, etc.

Field machine performance

Field efficiency is the ratio between the productivity of a machine under field conditions and the
theoretical maximum productivity. Field efficiency accounts for failure to utilize the theoretical
operating width of the machine, time lost because of operator capability and habits and operating
policy, and field characteristics.

Travel to and from a field, major repairs, preventive maintenance and daily service activities are
not included in field time or field efficiency. Field efficiency is not a constant for a particular
machine, but varies with the size and shape of the field, pattern of field operation, crop yield,
moisture, and crop conditions.

Effective field capacity is a function of field speed, machine working width, field efficiency, and
unit yield of the field. Area capacity is expressed as

Ca = swEf/10

where:

• Ca is area capacity, ha/h;

• s is field speed, km/h;
• w is implement working width, m;
• Ef is field efficiency, decimal;

or,

Ca = swEf/8.25

where:

• Ca is area capacity, acre/h;

• s is field speed, mile/h;
• w is implement working width, ft;
• Ef is field efficiency, decimal.
5
Material capacity is expressed as

Cm = swyEf/10

where:

• Cm is material capacity, t/h;

• s is field speed, km/h;
• w is implement working width, m;
• Ef is field efficiency, decimal;
• y is unit yield of the field, t/ha;

or,

Cm = swyEf/8.25

where:

• Cm is material capacity, ton/acre;

• s is field speed, mile/h;
• w is implement working width, ft;
• Ef is field efficiency decimal.
• y is unit yield of the field, ton/acre.

The Nebraska Tractor Tests

The 1919 session of the Nebraska legislature passed "A Bill for an Act to provide for official tests
for gas, gasoline, kerosene, distillate or other liquid fuel traction engines in the State of Nebraska
and to compel the maintenance of adequate service stations for same (Brackett 1931). The bill was
by a farmer who had bought and used tractors and whose experiences and observations convinced
him that conditions could be improved by the enactment of proper legislation. The bill became law
on July 15, 1919, and the testing work was assigned to the Agricultural Engineering Department
of the State University, where it has since remained.

Power Measurement Methods

To understand power and its measurement, certain terms must be defined and clearly understood.
Power-Power is a rate of doing work. A unit of power is a newton meter per second (watt).
Kilowatt A unit of power equal to 1000 N m of work per second.
Brake power-The power output of the engine crankshaft. The engine may be stripped of part or
all of its accessories. Power-takeoff power-The power delivered by a tractor through its PTO
shaft.
Drawbar power The power of a tractor measured at the end of the drawbar.

6
Friction power The power required to run the engine at any given speed without production of
useful work. It is usually measured with a suitable electric dynamometer that runs or "motors"
the engine. It represents the friction and pumping losses of an engine
Kilowatt-hour One kilowatt working for one hour. It is 3.6 x 106 joules
of work.
Dynamometer An instrument for determining power, usually by the independent measure of
force, time, and the distance through which the force is moved. Dynamometers may be classified
as brake, drawbar, or torsion, according to the manner in which the work is being applied. Also,
they may be classed as absorption or transmission, depending on the disposition of the energy.

Types of dynamometers
Absorption Dynamometers
- Prony Brake: An absorption dynamometer measures the power applied and at the same
time converts it to some other form of energy, usually heat.
- Hydraulic: The hydraulic dynamometer (fig. 14-3) also operates on the principle of
converting work into heat.
- Air Brake: Air or fan brakes are useful only in loading engines for run-in purposes and
for rough testing at relatively high speeds.
- Eddy-Current: An eddy-current dynamometer consists essentially of a rotor operating in
connection with a stator.

Electric Direct-Current Dynamometers

- The direct-current cradle-mounted dynamometer is a shunt-wound generator with
separate field excitation.
Shop-Type Dynamometers
- It is often desirable to measure the pto power of a tractor in the field or in an implement
dealer's repair shop.
Torsion Dynamometers

Chassis Dynamometer

7
Power Take off performance from Nebraska tests

Traction testing
Traction testing involves operating a traction device (wheel or belt) in the soil and making
measurements of its performance. Four dynamic (on the go) measurements are required:
• Input torque (T)
• Input speed (ω)
• Output force (NT)
• Output speed (Va)
Additionally, the dynamic weight (ground reaction force) must be known, measured, or calculated.
This
will usually depend on the design of the traction test device. If a single-wheel tester is used, it can
be
designed such that the dynamic weight reaction force is equal to that measured statically.

Single-Wheel Testing
The simplest device for a traction test of a wheeled device requires supporting the moving wheel,
applying the required torque, and measuring the developed force (net traction).

8
There are various ways this can be accomplished, with varying levels of complexity. Some devices
can operate only in soil bins, i.e., bring the soil to the device, while others are operated in the field.
In some cases, testing is done using complete vehicles, with the tractive device being the drive
wheels or tracks

With the single-link device above a change in input torque (T) results in a change in vertical force
reaction (Wd), which then must be measured dynamically during the test (in most cases adjusted
and measured
statically).
Figure below shows a modification using two parallel links
Advantage- eliminates the weight transfer effect,
Disadvantage-result in more difficult measurement of NT and T.
two alternatives for measuring torque
i- directly measuring the input torque,
ii- determining torque from the measurement of NT.
Net traction is the vector sum of the two reaction forces; the input torque can be determined by the
difference in the two reaction forces multiplied by the distance between the links.

9
Figure: Single-wheel tester with parallel arms

Parallel arm single-wheel tester with direct measurement of NT.

Tractor Performance
Tractor performance is proportional to the performance of the traction device(s), but not equal to
it.
Difference between tractive performance and tractor performance: -
• Tractive performance (efficiency) depends on knowing the input power (axle power) to the
traction device. Axle power for a complete tractor is seldom known and is not measured
during official tests.
• Tractive performance is given for a defined tire or traction device, for example an 18.4R46
tire. A tractor may operate with a combination of different traction devices, that is, different
size tires on the front and rear axles.
• Due to weight transfer when operating, even if a tractor has the same tires front and rear
(4WD
tractors, for example), both the static and dynamic weight that the tires are operating with will
likely be different between the front and rear axles, requiring different tire pressures and thus a

10
"different" traction device.
The performance of a tractor depends on the performance of a combination of traction devices and
the performance of the tractor drivetrain
Ballasting tractor-implement matching.
Adjusting ballast
Cast iron wheel weights or water in the tires are e quality effective means of adding weight. Cast
iron has the advantage of being easier to remove when the tractor is being u sed for light draught
work. One man can usually install weights up to about 50kg, provided there are ledges or pins to
support the weight whilst the attaching bolts and nuts are fitted.

If the height of the tractor drawbar can be adjusted, it provides the simplest way of making changes
to the tractor’s weight distribution when working. As explained previously in this chapter, raising
the drawbar increases the load on the rear wheels and reduces the load on the front wheels. On
two-wheel-drive tractors, the only reason for adding ballast in the front is to stabilize the steering
control. Excess front weight wastes power and fuel.

Weight addition
Some three-point-linkage implements and some trailed chisel plows and rippers can impose heavy
downward forces on the tractor drawbar. This causes additional weight to be added to the rear of
the tractor and increases the weight transfer. As a rough guideline, tractors working with
implements, which impose heavy downward loads, should be ballasted with 10% less total weight
than specified In the Table 1 below and the portion of weight on the front wheels s hould b e
increased by about 10%, as shown in Table

Tractor Type Weight Distribution at Rest (%)

Front Rear
Two-wheel-drive 30 70
Front-wheel-assist 45 55
Four-wheel-drive 65 35
The weight distribution is for tractors pulling implements, which impose
heavy downward force on tractor drawbar.

11
Table: applies only to tillage implements. Other implements like carry
drag scrapers have the potential to impose very high downward loads on the
tractor and can cause extreme overloading of the tractor’s rear axle.

Ballasting and weight transfer

If a tractor is not ballasted correctly, it will not work efficiently and there is also a risk of
premature drive-train failure. Too much weight means power is wasted in moving the tractor
around and drive-train components may fail prematurely. If the tractor is too light, excessive
wheel slip will waste power and cause rapid tire wear.
Correct weight levels
Correct tractor weight depends on the pull it exerts. When working at high power and low speed,
the tractor will develop a high pull and will need heavy ballasting. When working at high power
and high speed, the tractor will require less ballasting.

Table 2 gives an estimate of the correct working weight for tractors.

Working Weight required per

speed(Km/h) PTO kW (kg)
2-Wheel Drive 4-Wheel Drive
4 150 125
5 120 100
6 100 83
7 86 71
8 75 63
10 60 50
12 55 42
* The weight required is for tractors working on firm or cultivated soil, using 80% of its available
power. Optimum weight for a given speed can be calculated by multiplying the figure opposite
that speed by the tractor’s maximum PTO power in k W. These weights are only guidelines. The
measuring of the actual wheel slip can be used to adjust the ballast.

12
Weight transfer and instability, steerability and stability
Center of Gravity
The central concept in tractor stability/instability is Center of Gravity (CG). A tractor's CG is the
point where all parts balance one another. For example, when a two-wheel drive tractor is sitting
with all wheels on level ground, the CG is typically about 10 inches (25.4 cm) above and two feet
(0.6 m) in front of the rear axle when looking from back to front, and in the center of the tractor
body when looking left to right. This results in approximately 30 percent of the tractor weight on
the front axle, and 70 percent on the rear axle. For four-wheel drive and center-articulated tractors,
the CG is located slightly more forward. Added weights to a tractor can affect the CG.

Figure 1: The tractor’s center of gravity is inside the stability baseline.

There are two very important points to remember about tractor CG and stability baselines: • The
tractor will not overturn if the CG stays inside the stability baseline. • The CG moves around inside
the baseline area as you operate the tractor. As you can see in figure 1, a wide front-end tractor
provides more space for the CG to move around without going outside the stability baseline.

Drawing a line to connect all the wheels of the tractor as the wheels set on level ground forms a
tractor stability baseline. The line connecting the rear tire ground contact points is the rear stability
baseline. The lines connecting the rear and front tire on the same side are the right and left side
stability baselines.

13
Tractor CG action is no different from the CG action on any other mobile vehicle. What differs is
that tractors have a higher CG when compared to most other vehicles, such as automobiles and
trucks. The higher CG on modern tractors is

an inherent design characteristic and relates to their need for higher ground clearance over crops
and rough terrain. Changing tractor design so that their CG is significantly lowered would largely
defeat the purpose for having agricultural tractors.

Reasons the CG Moves Around

There are five main reasons why a tractor’s CG moves outside the stability baseline.
1. The tractor is operated on a steep slope.
2. The tractor’s CG is raised higher from its natural location 10 inches above the rear axle.
3. The tractor is going too fast for the sharpness of the turn.
4. Power is applied to the tractor’s rear wheels too quickly.
5. The tractor is trying to pull a load that is not hitched to the drawbar.

Causes of Overturn
How Center of Gravity and Centrifugal Force Result in an Overturn
When a tractor is on a slope, the distance between the tractor’s CG and stability baseline is reduced.
Figure 2. shows how this occurs. On steep slopes, the tractor is already close to an overturn. A
small bump on the high side, or a groundhog hole on the low side, may be all that is needed for
the tractor to overturn.

Figure: When a tractor is on a slope, the distance between the tractor’s CG and stability baseline
is reduced.
During tractor overturns, CF is that force trying to roll the tractor over whenever the tractor is
turning. Centrifugal force increases both as the turning angle of the tractor becomes sharper
14
(decreases), and as the speed of the tractor increases during a turn. For every degree the tractor is
turned tighter, there is an equal amount of increased CF. Centrifugal force varies in proportion to
the square of the tractor’s speed
When the distance between the tractor’s CG and side stability baseline is already reduced from
being on a hillside, only a little CF may be needed to push the tractor over.

A front-end loader or other attachment mounted on a tractor can raise the tractor’s CG. When the
bucket is raised high, the balance point for the whole tractor is also raised. Figure 4.12.d shows
how a raised CG.

Figure 3. A raised CG makes it easier for a tractor to turn over sideways. Safety Management for
Landscapers, Grounds-Care Businesses, and Golf Courses,
about 75 degrees from a level surface before its CG passes the rear stability baseline and the tractor
continues flipping over. This position is commonly called the “point of no return.”

Figure 4.12.e. The point of no return is reached in

3/4 of a second.

15
When a two-wheel drive tractor is pulling a load, the rear tires push against the ground. At the
same time, the load attached to the tractor is pulling back and down against the forward movement
of the tractor. The load is described as pulling down because the load is resting on the earth’s
surface. This backward and downward pull results in the rear tires becoming a pivot point, with
the load acting as a force trying to tip the tractor rearward.
A tractor, including the drawbar, is designed to safely counteract the rearward tipping action of
pulled loads. When loads are attached to a tractor at any point other than the drawbar, the safety
design of the tractor for pulling loads is defeated.
The heavier the load and the higher the “angle of pull,” the more leverage the load has to tip the
tractor rearward.
How to avoid tipping
Things to consider while hitching to avoid tipping
1- Only hitch to the drawbar
2- Never hitch to the top link of a point hitch
3- The angle of pull should be kept to a minimum.

figure 4: illustration of angle of pull

Safety Measures
1- The operator must stay within the protective frame of the Rollover Protective Structure
(Zone of Protection) in order for the ROPS to work as designed
2- This means the operator must wear
the seat belts.

Implement hitching and control

The hitching of implements and the mechanics of the chassis may be studied by considering two
perpendicular
planes:

16
 i) The vertical longitudinal plane down the center line of the tractor in which we consider
the symmetrical forces such as the weight, the wheel reactions and the direct effect of
the implement forces.
ii) the horizontal plane where the moment effect of the implement forces which are not
symmetrical (e.g. Unsymmetrical or off-set implements and all draft forces in turning)
will affect the attitude and steering of the tractor. These influence the operation of the
tractor but are not relevant to the normal (straight ahead)

The hitching of implements to tractors may be made in various ways and places. For this purpose,
the tractor has one or more standard attachment locations at the rear and for some tractors at the
front, in the form of:
(i) Linkages for 'adjustable' attachment; adjustment in the vertical plane is usually made by means
of an in-built hydraulic (hydro-static) pump driven by the tractor engine.
(ii) Drawbars for 'fixed' attachment; adjustment is made manually or with 'external' or 'remote'
hydraulic cylinders supplied with oil from the in-built hydraulic pump in the tractor.
The standard hitching systems may be classified as follows.
a) Trailed one-point hitch

Here the implement is attached to the tractor at one (drawbar) hitch point
- The implement, which is usually carried on wheels (for support and / or depth control),
is free to move in both the horizontal and vertical planes as it follows the varying
ground surface.

Common arrangements
i- where the implement is fully carried on its wheels and its drawbar is pivoted at both
ends; the implement force is essentially horizontal, Figure (a).
ii- where the front of the implement (such as in an unbalanced trailer or similar two-
wheeled implement) is carried on the tractor drawbar and the rear on a wheel or wheels,
Figure (b).
The trailer hitch is least effective in terms of both weight transfer and implement control when
compared with other systems

17
Figure : Trailed (one point) implement hitches (a) without and (b) with vertical force.

b) Semi-mounted - two point hitch

In this arrangement the front of the implement is carried on the lower links of the tractor
and the rear on a castor wheel as in Figure below

Figure: Semi-mounted hitch where the front of implement is carried on a horizontal pivot.

c) Fully mounted three-point hitch

- Here the implement is attached to the tractor by means of the three-point linkage as
shown in Figure 6.3. In this side view the lower two points are coincident; the upper
point is midway between, but above the lower two.
- This system totally constrains and allows complete control of the implement. It is not
free to swing in space like the trailed implement, nor in the vertical plane like the semi-
mounted; it must operate in the position determined for it by the linkage.

18
 Figure: Fully mounted, rear three-point linkage hitch.

Human factors, ergonomics and machine controls

The Operator-Machine Interface

The operator uses hearing, sight, and feel to interpret inputs and to interface with the control-

Regarding design of the operator's workplace, Hansson et al. (1970) state: Safety, comfort and
convenience should be considered in the design, location and construction of the operator's work
place. The work place should be located on the machine so that visibility in the driving position is
good without requiring the operator to work in an awkward, tiring position. Levers, pedals and
instruments should be conveniently and logically located and the work place should fit both tall
and short operators. In addition, the operator should be able to change his working position easily
and the work area should be free of sharp edges and obstructions such as transmission cases.

Noise and Vibration Control

Noise levels are the summation of rotating and reciprocating parts, structural vibrations, and gas
and fluid flows, all of which are transmitted either through the tractor's structure or through the
air. Vibration levels are the summation of components that are similar to noise source components
plus ground inputs from wheels

Sound and vibration are generated in the various rotating, reciprocating, and vibrating components
of the tractor. Fans, blowers, gears, and internal combustion engines generate sound at a
fundamental frequency, respectively, of rpm/60 times the number of blades, impellers, teeth, and
number of cylinders
Operator’s seating

19
Figure: Schematic diagram of noise and motion transmission.

Spatial, Visual, and Control Requirements of the Operator

Anthropometric data are used to properly design the operator's workplace to meet visibility and
clearance requirements. Table 9-5 gives selected anthropometric data for U.S. adult males. The
data shown have been adopted for use in SAE J833 as a recommended practice. For example,
height inside a tractor cab should be 185 cm to ensure that 95 percent of male tractor drivers will
not bump their heads when standing. Use of 185-cm standing height would also ensure satisfactory
design for adult women (95 percent is 170 cm).

20
 Theories and practice of cultivation

Soil Strength

Soil strength is used in soil mechanics to describe the force to be overcome in order to fail a soil
by shear. Soil strength depends on many elements, one fundamental consideration being the type
of soil. The particles of most soils are essentially incompressible, and soil masses have no tensile
strength. Soils fail when one block of soil moves relative to another block and the soil particles at
the failure plane move over each other. This is what is known as shear. When particles move
across each other, the resisting (or shear) force is friction. The shear resistance, or shear strength
is related to the physical characteristics of the soil, including particle size, shape, distribution and
orientation, but also the stresses acting on the soil at that location.

So a key element of shear strength is friction. For objects in contact, friction force along a plane
varies with the pressure acting perpendicular to the plane (known as normal stress). As normal
stress increases, so too does frictional resistance, or shear stress. This underlines that soil
strength is not a single figure but is dependent upon the stresses that are acting upon a soil. For
granular soils the relationship between shear stress and normal stress is a straight line, defined by
an angle (ø) known as the friction angle.

When considering soil strength, it is important to know the friction angle, as well as the stresses
which will be acting on the soil. When comparing different types of granular soil, the friction
angle is the single property that defines strength. The friction angle is critical when sourcing
materials for structural fill in reinforced soil structures and important for applications such as
working platforms and road foundations. It must also be remembered that any change in friction
angle may necessitate a re-design.

Clay soils are also composed of particles, although the particles are extremely small. There are
electrostatic charges (attractive forces) acting between these fine particles, and surface tension
from pore water holding particles together even without the application of external confining
forces, hence clay soils have some shear strength even when normal stress is zero. This
additional strength is known as apparent cohesion. It is not however a fundamental soil property.

21
When considering the strength of granular soils, even those with some clay content, cohesion can
mostly be ignored as it is the friction angle which is key. Healthy soil has complex strength
requirements. It wants to be a stable structure to support vegetation and a certain level of traffic,
and protect the vast array of pores and fissures. But at the same time it wants to support
cultivation by the farmer, earthworks by soil fauna and the exploration of roots, water and
gasses. It wants robust friability. It does not want to mimic concrete.the reaction of a soil to an
applied force. High-strength soils resist deformation (compaction especially), break-up (shearing
and shattering), and slippage. However, high-strength soils also resist root penetration and
exploration. an important concept in considering (and predicting) soil behaviour.

Strength is imparted to a soil by virtue of:

• cohesive forces between particles; and

• frictional resistance met by particles that are forced to slide over one another, or move
from interlocked positions.

Soil strength affected by water content,

• Influence of ground water on the shear strength of soil
The presence of ground water also has a marked influence on soil strength. Soils can be
saturated, where all void spaces between particles are filled with water, or partially saturated
when a percentage of air bubbles are present within the void spaces. The pore pressures
generated affect particle to particle stress and hence friction between soil particles. When a load
is applied to saturated soil, the pressure of the pore water (water in the spaces) immediately
increases because water is incompressible. A granular soil has relatively large interconnecting
voids between particles. When – as is usually the case in construction – loads are applied slowly
onto a granular soil, water can be assumed to drain away freely, dissipating any increased pore
pressure and allowing the applied load to be transferred to the soil skeleton. Consequently pore
water effects can be ignored.

Clay reacts differently as the voids are microscopically small and poorly interconnected. Water
can therefore only move at much lower rates and drainage is very slow, so when a load is applied
to a clay soil, the pore water pressure is unable to dissipate. As water is incompressible, the pore
water pressure carries the load and the particle to particle stresses in the clay do not increase. The
22
short-term saturated shear stress of a clay is therefore a constant value referred to as the
undrained stress, denoted by cu or su When considering the bearing capacity of clay soils, the
undrained shear strength is critical. This is extremely common in the UK where soils with high
clay content are found on many construction sites. Over time, water will drain from clay and the
pore pressure will slowly reduce and hence the strength of the clay soils will increase – however
this is a very long-term effect.
Clay type and moisture content influence strength through their role in cohesion. Water content
significantly modifies their cohesion. As water content increases – cohesion decreases. This is
because increasing water content causes greater separation of clay particles (and thus easier
slippage) and further, causes softening of soil cements.

23
Compactibility of soil can be used as an example of how moisture content, strength and
management can interact. More severe compaction occurs with traffic on wet soils than dry soils.
One passage of a tractor over wet soil, caused an equivalent reduction in infiltration rate to four
passages over dry soil. The dry soil has much greater resistance to structural change because it
has a higher strength.

This is demonstrated by the by the ‘critical moisture content curve’, where for a given
compactive force, the compactive effect increases as moist content increases up to a point where
the soil becomes so wet that compactions drops off. The ‘critical moisture content’ for
compaction occurs at the peak of the curve – this is most undesirable moisture content for
trafficking on the soil. The critical moisture content of any soil will depend on numerous factors
including soil texture and organic matter content.

Thus water content of the soil, via its effect on soil strength will affect:
• Structural stability
• Erosion

24
 • Tillage
• Root penetration
• Trafficability
• Susceptibility to landslip

Consistence is a useful way to approximate to soil strength by testing the amount of force
required to just cause the breaking or deforming of a 20 mm piece of soil (as ped or aggregate)
when a "compressive shearing force" is applied between thumb and forefinger. The standard
ratings used applied to a dry sample of soil, are:

Loose No force required. Separate particles such as

loose sands
Very weak Very small force almost nil
Weak Small but significant force
Firm Moderate or firm force
Very firm Strong force but within the power of thumb
and forefinger
Strong Beyond the power of thumb and forefinger.
Crushes underfoot on a hard flat surface
with small force
Very strong Crushes underfoot on a hard flat surface
with full bodyweight applied slowly
Rigid Cannot be crushed underfoot by full body
weight applied slowly
Increasing moisture content will cause quite a change of response to a given application of
thumb force – hence if you are using this to compare changes in paddock soil condition, make
sure you do it at a standard moisture content – and "dry" is the easiest to standardise. Consistence
is a useful indicator of changing soil condition.

Strength of soil and productivity

Soil strength will influence aggregate stability and soil structure.

25
High soil strength, depending on where in the soil profile, can:

• Inhibit seedling emergence (soil crusts and plough layers have a high structural strength)
• Limit root penetration

Low soil strength soils are:

• Susceptible to compaction (both by machinery and stock)

• Susceptible to erosion (both wind and water)

Soil state's impact on sheer strength of soil

A further factor affecting granular soil strength is the degree of particle compaction or soil state.
When a load is applied to loose, uncompacted soil, the particles will move closer together as the
soil contracts. After contraction of the soil, shearing takes place as particles begin to move over
each other. The soil shear strength increases as the particles compact, ultimately continuing at a
constant level and constant density or volume.

Where granular soils are already densely compacted, little or no contraction takes place and
particles are interlocked. As the load increases, before particles can shear over one another, they
have to move apart along the shear plane, unlocking the interlock. This is known as dilation. The
shear force required to overcome dilation is the ‘peak strength’ (øpeak). After dilation, particles

can move over each other more easily, requiring a lower shear force than at peak, which is
referred to as strength at constant volume øcv. In a situation where the soil is not expected to
shear – for example the structural fill in a reinforced soil wall – the peak strength should be used
in design. If addressing a high deformation condition, the preferred option would more likely be
the strength at constant volume. The important consideration is to ensure that the materials report
provides the appropriate strength for the design purpose.

Importance of shear strength of soil

The knowledge of shear strength is very important some of the uses are provided below:

26
 • In the design of foundations the evaluation of bearing capacity is dependent on the shear
strength.
• For the design of embankments for dams, roads, pavements, excavations, levees etc. The
analysis of the stability of the slope is done using shear strength.
• In the design of earth retaining structures like retaining walls, sheetpile coffer dams, bulks
heads, and other underground structures etc.

The shear strength of a soil mass is essentially made up of:

• Due to the interlocking of the grains the structural resistance of the movement of the soil
is very essential.
• An other important component is the frictional resistance between the individual soil grains
at their contact point on sliding.
• The resistance due to the forces which hold the particles together or the cohesion

Basic Elements and Materials of Tillage Tools

When entering the soil, the force applied to the tool is multiplied before acting on the soil, thus
causing either soil failure under dry conditions (crumbling) or plastic deformation in wet soils.
Usually soil failure is the desired effect while plastic deformation is an unwanted effect unless
applied for puddling in paddy field tillage.
Tillage machines that use drawn tines are performing this mainly by cutting, breaking, milling and
to a smaller extent by beating and throwing soil aggregates. Their effect usually becomes stronger
with speed. At the same time, tools with drawn tines are able to separate the different size classes
of the soil. Implements with driven tools usually break clods by beating them and throwing them
against some surface from where they will rebound.
TINES
Occurrence
When a soil has to be loosened, a body (operating tool) can be moved through the soil. Such a
body will be labeled a tine if the loosening effect reaches considerably further than the width of
the body, and plow body if the loosening effect is mainly confined to the soil within the width of
the operating tool. Tines occur in chisel plows, spike-tooth-harrows, cultivators, P.T.O.-driven
implements for seedbed preparation, weeders, and subsoilers
27
Figure 1Failure patterns of soil before a tillage tool

1: Failure according to the model of passive earth pressure;

2: Failure according to the model of bearing capacity;

3: Failure before a narrow tine; passive earth pressure failure above critical depth and bearing
capacity failure below critical depth;
4: Failure surfaces in the soil: passive earth pressure failure zone (I), intermediate zone (II), and
bearing capacity failurezone (III)

Figure 2 Mechanisms for clod breaking

TINE GEOMETRY
The tine geometry indicated that the failure would be upward, forwards and sideways (above
critical depth) . Ignoring soil –metal adhesion effects, which are generally a very small proportion

28
of the total force, the relevant part of the model gives the horizontal component (H t) of the passive
force (P) as

H t = (g d2 Nγ + cdNca + qdNq) × [ w + d (m – 1/3(m - 1))] sin (α + δ)

Figure 3 Wide tine showing soil failure plane

The three terms in the first bracket account for gravitational, cohesive and adhesive, and surface
surcharge loading effects respectively .
The second bracket contains the tine width ( w ) and an additional term linked to depth ( d ) which
allows for crescent
failures at each side of the tine .
The rupture distance ratio ( m )
The rupture zone ( f )
depth of the tine ( d )
The final term (sin ( α + δ )) gives the horizontal component of the resultant force .
A simplified equation for the vertical force component , V t , is given by
V t 5 ( g d2 Nγ + cdNc a + qdN q )× [ w + d ( m – 1/3( m - 1))] cos ( α + δ )]’

Complicated than that originally given in the model by Godwin and Spoor 3 and produces a
negligible difference in the vertical force component at rake angles less than 75% (when δ=20°)

29
Figure 4 Cross - section of typical tine failure soil profile

Scouring will occur as long as the resistance at the soil/tool interface is less than that of a parallel
soil/soil interface. In practice the angle of soil/metal friction is usually less than the angle of
shearing resistance ancl, therefore, an increase in the normal load will increase the soil shearing
resistance more than the interface thereby improving scouring . Reducing the normal load will
promote non-scouring and so any low pressure pockets on tools should be avoided.
Chase (1942) reported that the angle of the approach edge is important as it affects the soil
movement (Fig.b and c). When the bevel is on the upper surface, a "low pressure area" causes
the soil to adhere to the surface, sticking is not observed. It has also been reported that the top
bevel edged tools need more frequent sharpening.
A slatted tool reduces the interface area without reducing the soil/soil shear interface and it also
increases the normal load; both these factors will encourage scouring. Moreover, the closer the
approach angle of the tool to the direction of travel the better the chance of scouring. The tools
designed for wet arid sticky soil should have slatted interface for better scouring and minimum
draft.

30
Effects of non - scouring conditions
Experience of tines running in cohesive clays shows that soil build up occurs near the surface but
decreases with depth to the tine point as shown in F i g . 5 . This means that the effective rake
angle δe is greater than

Figure 5 Non - scouring (static) soil block on tine face

The actual tine angle a. A simple assumption was used in order to take this effect into account
where a e is the mean rake angle between a at depth and 90 8 at the soil surface, as given in Eqn
below
Hence, for non-scouring soils a e replaces a and now because the moving soil slides over static
soil the interface friction angle ( d ) is assumed to be equal to

Implement design and selection for the basic cultivation operations

Based on soil mechanics principles and soil state.
Currently, ground engaging tillage tools are developed by constructing parts and running
physical tests either in a soil bin or in the field. Based on the results changes are made and new
parts are constructed and retested. Design options are limited by the cost required to construct the
parts and the time required to run tests. Mathematical analyses of tillage forces offer a way to
simulate and design ground engaging tools in soil speed of conditioning soil for improved crop
growth. One important factor in evaluating these tools is the amount of power required to pull
the tool, or implement, through the soil. The power requirement effects the size of tractor
needed, the speed, and depth at which the tool can be operated. Soil engaging hand tools used
essentially for tillage and weed cutting form a large section of tools used in agriculture. These
tools help in changing the soil state which is dependent upon tool geometry, nature of soil and
soil/metal interface characteristics. A well designed tool is one which performs the manipulation
required in most efficient manner with a minimum of draft. The information in this paper has
31
been extracted from theory and experimental practice for interaction of simple shaped tines with
soil. In practice, however, more complex shapes are available. Experience has shown that
although differences do occur, the basic trends remain more or less similar to simple tines.
Therefore, the general principles outlined in this paper can be a valuable aid to the designers of
hand tools for selecting an appropriate shape and orientation of soil working components for a
specific purpose

Figure 6 Example of a tillage tool (sweep) on an implement

The work done by the sweep creates forces that are carried into the implement frame. The
forces can be divided into three components as illustrated on the figure below. The force in the
fore-aft direction is commonly referred to as the draft force. The vertical force is the amount of
force that sucks the tool into the ground or pushes it up. The lateral force is the side-to-side force.
These forces tend to be cyclic in nature and cause fatigue on the implement frame. The sum of the
forces from each individual sweep is the total load on the hitch of the implement that connects the
implement to the tractor.

32
Figure 7 Free body diagram of field cultivator sweep and shank

Soil failure – coulomb equation

o Some of the earliest developments in understanding soil failure were developed by
Coulomb in 1776. He surmised that the shear strength of soil was made up of two
components: cohesion and friction.
Cohesion is the shear strength or bonding strength of the soil independent of any
external applied pressure.
Friction is the shear strength component that is relative to the applied pressure.

Coulomb’s law of soil shear strength is given as

From the Coulomb’s law of soil shear strength, various methods of evaluating the force of the soil
acting on a wall or cutting tool have been developed. The basis for these formulations started out
from infinite smooth vertical walls retaining a soil mass, such as a retaining wall. Coulomb
developed one of the earliest such methods of calculating the soil force. He based his method on

33
the idea that the weakest failure plane would most likely be the failure surface. Then he calculated
the failure surface based on the internal friction, cohesion strength, and soil weight.
The graphical representation of this development is shown on the figure below.

The resulting equation is below

The methodology developed by Coulomb has been applied to certain types of soil- tool
interactions. These included wide tools such as bulldozer blades and plows where edge effects are
small compared to the forces on the face of the tool because the width of the tools is large compared
to the height. However, there are many types of tillage tools that do not satisfy the geometry
assumptions.

Mohr’s work
o Mohr, in 1882, showed that it is possible to show the two-dimensional stress state on the
failure plane even with known stress values that are not on the failure plane.
o The stresses on the failure plane can be determined by creating a graph of Mohr’s circle
with the values of cohesion and the principal stresses.

34
 o The graph could also be used to calculate the internal friction angle of the soil and the angle
of the failure plane.

The figure below shows an example of the stress state on a triaxial soil sample and the
corresponding Mohr’s circle of the stress state.

Prandtl equation
Prandtl developed an equation for determining the bearing capacity of smooth shallow footings.
Directly below the footing is an active Rankine soil failure zone that moves downward and to the
sides are passive failure zones that move up.
Between the active and passive failure zones are radial shear zones.
Prandtl surmised that if the weight of the soil were assumed to be negligible compared to the forces
resulting from soil cohesion along the radial shear zone then the shape of the radial shear zone
surface would be a log spiral (McKyes, 1989).

Prandtl, Reece, Others Work

Combining the theories of coulomb and Prandtl resulted in a two-dimensional model for
calculating soil forces on tillage tools. The two failure zones in front of the tool have a surface
shaped by the logarithmic spiral curve as mentioned before.
Calculating the soil forces on the failure boundaries of the two zones and adding in the body forces
can be used to calculate the force components on a tillage tool.
Based on this theory, Reece developed a force equation for the total force on the tool (shen and
kushwaha, 1998).
35
Figure below illustrates the model and failure surface.

Field and laboratory observations

o Observations in the field have given way to lab experiments in controlled conditions that
allowed for repetition. Soil bins were created in laboratories so that various soil parameters
could be controlled to determine the effect on tillage tools. Willatt and Willis studied the
effect of soil compaction and buildup on simple tines (Willatt and Willis, 1965).

Using a standard tine to predict the loads on tillage tools was proposed by Desbiolles et.al (1997).
They investigated an approach where the tillage forces could be predicted based on two factors
relating to soil strength and the tool geometry.
1- The first step involved establishing relationships between a standard tine and various tool
geometries under controlled soil conditions, such as in a soil bin.
Five different tool types were considered including two subsoilers, chisel tine, disc, and
moldboard plow.
2- The second step involved measuring the forces on the standard tine in a variety of field
conditions. Collecting data with the standard tine in four soil conditions, they were able to
predict the draught to within an average of 18 percent of the measured force.

Field and lab work – Cone penetrometer

Predicting tillage forces based on cone penetrometer readings was proposed by Desbiolles et. al
(1999). In their research they compared the relationship between the cone penetration energy (Pe)
36
and the soil strength factor (S). They collected cone penetrometer data in sandy-loam and clay
soils. Draught data was collected for a 70mm wide standard tine. Using a regression analysis of
the data, they were able to develop equations for sandy and clay soils as a function of soil type,
geometry, tool width, working depth, and penetrometer energy.

Field measurement of soil strength

Soil strength influences the energy to carry out and also determines whether a crop's root system
can effectively the soil to obtain reasons it is frequently necessary in cultural practice/tillage studies
to soil strength. Pre-tillage measurements should be taken, but will only be of value if soil water
content, soil and dry bulk density are known.
Cone Index
Cone Index is measured using a proprietary made conforming to recognized standards 4.5.
It is an indication of the soil hardness and is expressed as force per cm2 (or kilo Pascals, kPa) of a
cone to penetrate the soil. Cone Index under the same soil conditions varies with cone apex angle
and area of cone base. The apex angle and base diameter should be specified the force is measured
at set depths and the results as in Figure below

37
SOIL STREGTH AND SELECTIONS OF CULTIVATIONS MACHINE

The soil Strength Parameters has great Role on the selection of Farm implements and Machines
fir acultivations Such as Choosing uthe implements with wide tyre or Double tyre will depends
on the structure of the soil strengths, these will and can bee seen According to Battiato and
Diserens,( 2019) from Journal results of thieir study show that “the optimisation of the energy
aspects involved in the traction developed by a tractor depends, to a great extent, on the control
of the wheel slip and on the choice of a tractor configuration which properly matches the
mechanical response of the soil.

This fact must be recognised of primary importance in developing strategies to reduce fossil
fuel consumption and costs of tillage management as contribution to a sustainable crop
production.”

38
This through the relationship between Sool strength parameter and thetraction performance of
the Farm machine and implements.

Firstly, From the Result of Simulation for drawbar pull as from their studies show rhe followings

Tyre 60 kPa 160 kPa

pressure
DPmax Slip at RMSE RMSEoverall DPmax Slip at RMSE RMSEoverall
Soil
kN DPmax kN kN kN DPmax kN kN

Clay 28.5 28.0% 1.31 1.90 25.3 25.7% 1.62 1.70

Clay loam 25.6 27.2% 3.01 21.8 26.6% 2.90
Silty loam 28.5 38.6% 2.14 25.9 46.7% 1.85
Loamy 24.5 23.6% 1.14 18.9 26.6% 0.42
sand

This show that at all soil sample, increase in tyre pressure from 60 kPa to 160 kPa turned out in a
decrease in drawbar pull. The overall variation from the lowest to the highest maximal drawbar
pull measured on the four soils was about 16% at a tyre pressure of 60 kPa and 37% at a tyre
pressure of 160 kPa.

Although the soil strength mainly controls the highest value of the drawbar pull, the way this
latter varies with the slip depends on the geometry of the soil-tyre contact surface and on the
rapidity with which the shear stress at the soil-tyre contact surface increases with the shear
displacement.

The higher the shear deformation modulus, the slower the shear stress increases with the shear
displacement and the slower the drawbar pull increases with the slip, for a given soil-tyre contact
surface. Which explains why, at a low slip, the drawbar pull on the clay was lower than that on
the silty loam, whilst, at a high slip, it resulted higher.

39
 It must be observed that a higher mean normal stress over the soil-tyre contact surface makes
for higher soil strength but, at the same time, increases the soil compaction resistance due to a
deeper soil sinkage under the wheel.

But,

the soil-tyre contact surface depends, among factors such as the tyre geometry, the tyre
stiffness and the wheel load, also on the soil stiffness during vertical compression.

Traction Coefficient , Motion Resistance (MR) and Traction Efficiency

-Clay has highest traction Coefficient then followed by Silty loam, Clay loam and Loamy Sand

Traction Coefficient Increases with slip and decreases with tyre pressure at least for the high
value of slip.Clay and silty loamy enable the development of the highest drawbar pull.

Its known that soil strength is given by the sum of a cohesive component c and a frictional
component stanφ, which depends on the normal stress s.

As a general rule, on soils whose shear strength is characterised by a high cohesive component,
the highest improvements in the drawbar pull and traction coefficient are obtained with tractor
configurations which imply a major increase in the soil-tyre contact surface (like a low tyre
inflation pressure or the use of large wheels or dual wheels). On the contrary, on soils whose
shear strength is largely controlled by the frictional component of resistance (high angle of shear
resistance and low cohesion), significant improvements in drawbar pull are obtained by
increasing the wheel load of the tractor. However, such improvements in drawbar pull might not
correspond to improvements in traction coefficient.

• But,Motion Resistancw incrwase with tyre pressure.

• Increase in slip reduce Motion Resistance on the clay,But show less signficant on the
other soil type.
• The Highest Motion Resistance is obtained from Silty Loamy followed by clay then clay
loam and sand loamy.

Motion Resistance is Calculated as Sum of the Soil Compaction Resistance acting on the
tractor Wheels.

40
 • Represent the work performed by the tractor wheel in order to make Ruts of a
defined path.

Depends on soil stiffness under vertical compressions.A high stiffness soil-little not Depth and
soil compaction resistance.

• Increase in deeper rut of the wheel, increase the Motion resistance.

• Due to load transfer effect, Increase in slip produces decrease in wheel load acting
on d acting on the front wheel and a corresponding increase in wheel load on the
rear wheel.
Which justify that Clay Soil has more Motion Resistance than Other Particular
Soil.

Traction efficient

• Increase in tyre pressure decrease the traction efficient,this is due to the decrease of Soli-
tyre surface contact.
• Loamy sand has Highest Traction Coefficient followed by Clay loam, Clay and silty
loamy.

When a drawbar pull increasw Slowly due to deformations,Wheel slip by reducing Traction
Coefficient which caused by reduction of soil tyre surface contact and increase Motion
Resistance.

Power Delivery Efficiency hPD and Specific Fuel Consumption SFC

Power Delivery Efficiency is the function of the wheel slip,It seem that,the increase of tyre
pressure will reduce the overall Power Delivering.

It Controlled by the Elasto- Plastic mechanical behaivor of tje Soil.Power Derivery

decreases when tyre pressure increases.

SFC as fuction of Drawbar/Slip and Tyre pressure

• Increase of tyre pressure increase Overall Specific Fuel Consumption.

41
 • SFC increases with increase of tyre pressure, and Increase in Power Derivery Efficiency
decrease in Specific Fuel Consumption due to better use of soil strength as well as
reduction in energy losses involved in Tractions.

STEERABILITY AND STABILITY

In mechanics, these two terms get meaning of ability of balancing all forces acted on implement
or machine as applied by term stability and ability of controlling the machines or implements to
do the work in terms of their forces is called steerability. So, in this chapter we shall consider most
on those forces
1) Forces acting on a tillage implement or tool
The engineers are concerned with the forces acting on a tillage implement because of:
i. Total power requirements
ii. Proper hitching or application of pulling force.
iii. Designing for adequate strength and rigidity
iv. To determine best shape and adjustment of tools
A tillage implement (or tool) moving at a constant velocity is subjected to three main forces or
force system which must be in equilibrium. These are:
i. Force of gravity upon the implement
ii. The soil forces acting upon the implement
iii. The forces acting upon the implement and the prime mover
If torque from rotary power transmission is not involved, the resultant of these forces is the pull of
the power unit upon implement.
Clyde sub-divides the total soil reaction into two: useful forces and parasitic forces
i. Useful forces: Are those forces which the tool must overcome in cutting, breaking and
moving of soil.
ii. Parasitic forces: Are those forces (including friction and rolling resistance) that act on
stabilizing surfaces such as land side and sole of plow or upon supporting runners or
wheels.
Under given set of operating conditions with a specific implement the operator has some control
over useful soil-resistance forces. However, both designer and operator have some control over
parasitic forces.

42
 Forces acting on tillage tool

(If tool is not symmetrical about the vertical, longitudinal plane through its center line,
useful soil forces usually introduce rotational effect.)

• P=Pull exerted by power unit has components in all the major planes and associated with
it is a couple.
• R= Resultant of all useful forces acting upon tool or implement.
• Let us resolve the forces in three components L, S, V.
• L=Horizontal component also called draft.
• V=Vertical component.
- It removes load from the front wheel of tractor and effects on tractive ability of
tractor, stability and steerability. It helps in penetration and maintains working
depth.
• S=Side draft or force.
- Maintains directional stability on tractor and implement and affects on draft of
implement because of frictional forces.

L=R cosθ x cosф

V= R sinθ x cosф
S= R cosθ x sinф

43
Where;
θ =Angle of inclination of ‘R’ in vertical plane with horizontal.
ф=Angle of inclination of ‘R’ in transverse plane with horizontal.
• For mounted implements supported and pulled by tractor, this force P between implement
& tractor in vertical plane is force containing L & V component

P=√L2 +V2

= √R2 cos 2 θ cos 2 ф + R2 sin2 θ cos 2 ф

= √R2 cos 2 ф ( cos 2 θ +sin 2 θ )

P =R cos θ

As tools are not symmetrical about vertical and longitudinal plane. There are different ways of
expressing total soil reaction on tillage tool with rotational effect

Figure (b) one force R, plus a couple V, in a plane 1 to the line of motion
c) A wrench i.e. one force plus a couple in the plane perpendicular to the force.
(d) Three forces on mutually perpendicular axes and three couples in the planes of intersection of
axes.
(e)Three forces in three major planes.
44
 • Results of force measurements may be represented by any of these five methods and results
expressed in one form can be transposed to another form by method of statics.

Typical Location of Rh and its relation to the Landside Force and Pull

Following discussion force R and its components L, S, V, Rh & Rv refer to resultant of useful soil
forces Q indicates parasitic force & P, Pv , Ph and Px (draft) include effect of both useful and
parasitic forces and force of gravity.

Angle pull
45
Horizontal force relations:
• Horizontal component L equal and opposite to Rh (Rh - Resultant of L & S).

• There is no side force on landside and draft = -L

• When horizontal Pulling force is in the direction of travel i.e. Px (draft) Parasitic side force
automatically introduced on landside to counteract S.
• Qh = Resultant of side force and accompany friction force on landside.

• H = Intersection of Rh & Qh.

It is the horizontal location of center of resistance of plow bottom.

Vertical force relation:
• Mould board plow has downward acting vertical component.
• Magnitude of V in relation to L varies widely and influenced by
- Soil type
- Soil condition
- Depth of cut
- Share edge shape
- Share sharpness.
• Penetrating ability is important characteristic.

➢ In case of mounted and semi-mounted implements V contributes directly to vertical load on

tractor rear wheels and increases load transfer from front wheel to rear wheel.
➢ Shares with downward Pitch Point (extended forward beyond the line of share edge) have
greater suction (downward V) than straight shares, particularly at shallow and moderate
depth.
➢ Share having top beveled - less downward V
➢ Share having bottom beveled - more downward V
➢ Leading portion of bottom slightly higher than rear portion reduces V and increases soil
compaction.

46
Hitch Systems and Hitching Tillage Implements:
Force relation is involved in hitching pull type of implements. Useful soil forces components L,
S, V and implements gravitational force W are independent force variables and analyze simple
drawbar hitch arrangement or integral hitch systems. Parasitic soil forces Q and pull P are
dependent variables and can be influenced by hitch arrangement. Analysis of force relation
considering horizontal components R, Q, P and W is horizontal hitching and components of these
forces in vertical plane is vertical hitching. Primary objective of proper hitching for pull type
implements having adjustable pull members is to establish the location and magnitude of the
resultant parasitic support force (Qh or Qv) and pull (Ph or Pv). Force relation for mounted or
semi-mounted implements is determined by design of hitch linkage and implement and by method
of controlling implement depth, rather than by hitch adjustments.

Horizontal hitching of pull type Implement:

M.B. plow, disk plow, offset disk harrow are not symmetrical about their longitudinal center lines.
Most of other implements are symmetrical about their longitudinal center lines, side components
of soil forces are balanced, horizontal centre of resistance is at centre of tilled width and horizontal
line of pull is in direction of travel. Plows and offset disk harrows can withstand substantial
amounts of side draft (lateral component of pull) so proper hitching is must to minimize adverse
effects on tractor and implement. M.B. plows absorb side forces through landsides, disc plows
throw furrow wheels, offset disk harrows by automatically changing disk angles to create a
difference between soil-force side components for front and rear gangs. Pull type disk plows have
free-link pull members. M.B. plow and disk harrows have laterally rigid pull members. It is not
always possible to have a horizontal centre of resistance of an implement directly behind the centre
of pull of tractor particularly for narrow implements and wide-tread tractors. This implement can
withstand side force, alternatives are:
- Central angled pull passing through centre of pull of tractor
- offset straight pull
-offset angled pull
If implement cannot withstand side force only alternative is:
• an offset straight pull.
Centre of pull of tractor is midway between rear wheels and slightly ahead of axle as differential
divides torque to wheels equally. Central angled pull does not affect tractor steering but offset pull
does. Angled pull introduces a side force on tractor rear wheels and is undesirable with same
implement even though implement can resist side force. So a compromise in hitching is best with
a part of adverse effect absorbed by tractor and part by implement.

47
 Horizontal hitching for a mold board plow pulled by wider tractor

For hitching, its location can be assumed to be one-fourth of the width of cut over from landside
and little behind the rear edge of the share. Line of pull is determined by location of H and location
of drawbar hitch point F as pull members are laterally rigid. Ideal hitch is obtained when tractor
tread can be adjusted so the control of pull is directly ahead of horizontal centre of resistance.
Normal tread of 52 inches can be adjusted to 48 inches. When a central straight pull cannot be
obtained, it is better to divide the effect of offset so that line of pull passes a little right of centre
of pull but not enough to cause steering troubles.

HUMAN FACTORS AND SAFETY

Human factors when properly incorporated in design, allow the operator to perform task with better
efficiency, comfort and safety. Different factors which need to be considered in tractor/farm
machinery design from human factor point of view are:
1. Operator-Machine interface
2. Operator exposure to environmental factors
3. Location, arrangement and easy operation of controls
4. Operator seat

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In any activity, operator receives and processes information and then acts upon the tractor
(mounted implement) . There are many interfaces between the tractor operator and the tractor; they
include various actions such as:
• Riding in and out daily many times

• Maintenance such as cleaning, servicing and refuelling

• Riding on and operating the controls for performing desired tasks

Therefore, when a tractor operator operates the tractor, the sensing and decision making and
muscular powers of the operator are attached to an engineering system (tractor). The tractor
operator uses sensory system; hearing, sight, sense of smell, touch, heat/cold or feels through
nervous system to the brain. The brain feels senses and interprets the inputs from the machine; the
operator will then take action as a result of the decision and to interface the control instruments
through manipulation to achieve the desired output of the tractor.
1) Operator exposure to environmental factors
Agricultural tractors are generally used under varying agro-climatic conditions. The tractor
operators are exposed directly to thermal stresses due to excessive environmental temperatures,
humidity, wind, dust and even chemicals during spraying and dusting operations. These
environmental parameters especially temperature, humidity, air flow and dust concentrations have
considerable bearings on performance and safety of tractor operator.
Most of the parameters are interrelated and the tractor operator needs to be provided with a
comfortable environment in order to enhance his work efficiency and safety. These parameters
must be considered for design of operators enclosure of tractor to minimize their effect and provide
thermal comfort and quality air in enclosures. The comfort and bearable zones of temperature,
humidity and air ventilation rates are reported in table below. However, the effect of ultraviolet
radiations on humans is not known so far.
2) Spatial, visual and control requirement of the operator
i. Work place layout: The layout of workplace should be compatible with not only system
performance requirement but also with the user. It should also ensure safety and comfort of
operator and controls must be within the reach to minimize errors. Proper workplace layout
requires consideration of workplace dimensions, controls and operations being controlled with due
regard to:
• The operator’s size

• His position and the directions in which he can most easily work.

• The optimum spaces in which he can manipulate the controls

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 • Arrangement of controls and displays

• Visual requirement for maximum operator efficiency

• Working posture of the operator viz. Sitting, standing or squatting

• Special influence such as protective clothing.

To decide about proper workplace layout following important factors must be considered:
• Anthropometric parameters of operators

• Placement of operator on tractor for optimum work task vision or vision of

displays

• Placements of controls in optimum areas for the operators.

iii. Placement of operator for optimum vision

The seat of tractor must give the operator an optimum field of vision and be in a position on the
tractor which helps give him comfortable and safe operating conditions. Tractor operator may
require vision to front and rear, or front and sides. A wide field of vision is required for both short
and long ranges. Moreover close range vision is required during handling of mounted implements.
These visibility requirements are satisfied by upright seating posture in order to permit easy
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movements of head and upper body from the front, to side, or rear as required for gathering
necessary visual information. Good visibility for the operator is more important than excessive
number of displays, especially when the machine is operating satisfactorily. The display area has
to be close to the operator’s line of vision which requires only minimum eye movements away
from his task. Table belowwould be quite helpful in designing the location of displays of tractor in
relation to the operator.

iv. Control requirements of operator

A control is a device or hardware that can be considered as a link between the tractor and operator
which converts the output of operator into input and change of state of tractor. Concept of optimum
dimensions and limiting dimensions is used in placement of controls in space and dimensions
usually chosen to define boundaries of the space is estimated to cater for 5th to 95th percentiles of
operators. The optimum dimensions defines that most desirable space or ideal area for the location
of most important and frequently used controls both in neutral position as well as in working
position in any direction. The limiting dimensions define the acceptable but not the most desirable
space for location of controls as the controls are neither too close nor too far from the operator.
Generally two types of controls are used in tractors i.e. hand controls and foot controls.
3) Operator seat
Tractor seat is most closely linked with the operator’s comfort and it must be able to provide with
comfortable and controlled seated posture to the operator. It must provide the operator adequate
vision to perform all the tasks safely and efficiently. All the hand and foot controls should be
positioned in relation to seat in such a way that these can be operated with ease and with minimum
possible efforts by the operator in seated position.
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Above all it should be able to reduce/absorb the mechanical shocks and vibrations transmitted to
the operator. It should be strong, stable and reliable and extremely durable with minimum cost.
Seat should be designed to accommodate, equally well, the total population of tractor operators,
regardless of age and gender with a reasonable range of individuals, usually from 5 to 95
percentiles.

Section view of operator seat

ERGONOMICS IN TRACTOR AND AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY DESIGN
The ergonomic aspects during application in agricultural machinery are of great importance as the
operator has to operate the machine in field. The physiological as well as psychological fatigue
affects performance of the operator. Objective of ergonomics is not only to improve work
performance but also to improve human comfort as well as safety. If ergonomic aspects are not
given due consideration, the performance of the system will be poor and the effective working
time will be reduced. The goal of ergonomics is to design workplace to conform to the
physiological, psychological, and behavioral capabilities of workers. There are many factors acting
as stress on the operator during the work. These stresses may be due to workload, immobilization
for longer duration work, ambient temperature, relative humidity, vibrations, noise, dust, smoke
and other gases. A feeling of chance of accident during work, space confinement, overload of
information to be handled, etc. results in psychological fatigue. During the ergonomic studies,
these stresses can be measured in terms of strain on the operator. The most important among
physiological strains are related to heart activity, respiration, discomfort, muscular fatigue, etc.

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OVERALL PERFORMANCE OF TRACTOR IMPLEMENT COMBINATION AND ITS
IMPROVEMENT
The losses in power at the wheel / surface interface are often great, particularly on soft surfaces
(ie, their efficiency is low), hence the power available at the tractor drawbar may be much less
than the power of the engine. Hence the choice of the tyres and the weight on them is crucial in
determining the overall performance of the tractor.
Inasmuch as the performance of a tractor - the motions accomplished in accelerating, braking,
cornering and ride is a response to forces imposed, much of the study of tractor dynamics must
involve the study of how and why the forces are generated.
The dominant forces acting on the tractor are produced from the ground. A knowledge of forces
generated by agricultural tyres on hard and deformable surfaces is necessary in order to predict
tractor handling and stability adequately. It is worth noting that the term "handling" is often used
interchangeably with cornering, turning, or directional response, but there are nuances of
difference between these terms. Cornering, turning, and directional response refer to objective
properties of the vehicle when changing direction and sustaining lateral acceleration. On the other
hand, handling adds to this the vehicle qualities that feed back to the driver affecting the ease of
the driving task or affecting the driver’s ability to maintain control.
To obtain optimum performance from an off-road vehicle, it is necessary to understand the
interaction between the tyres and the medium on which it operates. The size and shape of the
contact area depends on the structural properties of both the tyre and the soil. Tyre force is defined
as an external force acting on a wheel. The tyre force has three mutually perpendicular
components. The longitudinal force is the component of the force acting on the tyre by the ground
in the ground plane and parallel to the intersection of the wheel plane.
Lateral force is the component of the force acting on the tyre by the ground in the ground plane
and normal to the intersection of the wheel plane with the ground plane. The normal force (radial
force) is the component of the force acting on the tyre by the ground which is normal to the plane
of the ground. The normal force has a negative magnitude, it is equivalent to the negative of the
vertical wheel load.
The point of application of these tyre forces is the intersection of the wheel plane, the ground plane
directly under the wheel center, and the plane passing through the wheel center, perpendicular to
the ground and wheel planes as shown in figure below.

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 Forces acting on tyre
MEASUREMENT AND IMPROVEMENT

The tyre force normal to the ground is modeled by assuming the tyre could be represented by a
spring plus a damper system, which has a point contact with the ground surfaces. The selection of
a tyre model consisting of a spring plus damper with point contact with the ground surface
necessitates that the surface specified be compatible with this model. In particular, the ability of
the pneumatic tyre to envelope sharp obstacles must. be considered. It has been shown that
irregular surfaces that are traversed by a pneumatic tyre can be considered smooth when this tyre
model is used

Measurement carried out on agricultural tyre vertical spring and damping rates and found that in
general tyre's dynamic vertical spring rate was higher than the spring rate obtained from a
linearization of tyre's static load-deflection relation.

Mathematical review
Modelling of the tyre force in the vertical direction including the segmented wheel model of
Lessemsl which divides the tyre into a number of pie-shaped segments with each segment having
its own radial spring. Contributions in modeling the spring properties of agricultural tyres in the
vertical direction have also been presented by (Thompson et al, 1972).

N=ci + kx
where,
N=radial force, [kN]
c=damping coefficient of the tyre, [kNs/m]
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k=stiffness of the tyre, [kN/m]
x=radial deflection of the tyre, [m]
i = deflection rate, [m/s]

Modeling of the circumferential force properties of tractor tyres has also received much attention
due to their importance in the description of performance. The circumferential forces include:
rolling resistance, traction and braking forces. The motion resistance force on an unpowered wheel
has commonly been predicted by the product of motion resistance ratio and the normal load on the
wheel

(Wismer et al,1974) presented a method of simulating the tractive performance of agricultural tyres
through the use of a mathematical formulation to fit the form of many experimentally determined
net tractive coefficient-drive wheel slip relations.
This relation takes the following form;

where,
µ = the coefficient of net traction
A=the maximum obtainable value of tractive coefficient
B=determines the "shape" of the curve
s=drive wheel slip

𝑣𝑓 1
𝑠 = (1 − )
𝑟𝑤
vf = component of the wheel center velocity parallel to the line-of intersection of
the wheel and the ground plane, [m/s]
r=effective rolling radius of the tyre, [m]
w=angular velocity about the axle, [l/s]

Both traction and motion resistance forces vary with ground conditions, wheel slip and wheel
load. The braking force properties of agricultural tyres have been the least investigated. The
braking force coefficient as a function of wheel load, wheel slippage, and ground conditions
similar to the traction or motion resistance ratios could be developed and applied to estimate the
55
braking force that the ground can generate. This, although, has been used in the development of
automatic skid controls for automotive braking systems, it has not been applied to the analysis of
agricultural tyre braking. It is a well-established fact that the lateral force developed by
agricultural tyres play a leading role in the simulation of the handling behaviour of a tractor. It is
the generation of these forces that cause the tractor to turn rather than the kinematics established
by a given steering geometry. Lateral force is a function of the radial force, camber angle,
inflation pressure, tyre construction, slip angle and ground conditions. For powered wheels, the
lateral force varies with traction and braking forces (Krick,1973).

A number of efforts were made to express lateral force by linear, exponential or polynomial
functions of the radial force, traction force, and slip angle for different tyre constructions and
ground conditions (see review by Horton and Crolla, 1984).

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REFERENCE
Battiato, A. and Diserens, E., (2019). Influence of Soil on the Traction Performance of a 65 kW
MFWD Tractor. Journal of Agricultural Science, 11(17), p.11.
E. J. McCormick. Human Factors in Engineering and Design, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York, 1976.
Farm and Ranch Management, John Deere Publishing, 1994.
John Deere Publishing, (2001): Safety Management for Landscapers, Grounds-Care Businesses,
and Golf Courses,.

Pennsylvania state University (2004): Tractor Stability, national safe tractor and machinery
operation program

Type agriculture tractor overturn hazards in search box: Tractor Overturn Hazards, August 2002.
www.cdc.gov/

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