Sizing the drive system:

Module 5
 syllabus
• Matching the electric machine and the
internal combustion engine (ICE),
• Sizing the propulsion motor,
• sizing the power electronics,
• selecting the energy storage technology
 introduction
• The vehicle power plant must be sized for the
target vehicle mass, load requirements and
performance goals.
• Vehicle propulsion system traction is set by the
vehicle design mass and acceleration
performance according to Newton’s law,
F = ma
• motor vehicle, the term power train or power plant describes the main
components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface,.
• Vehicle Propulsion is a means of creating force leading to movement.
 Standard limits
• Acceptable acceleration levels are 0.15 to 0.3 g, which
for a 1500 kg vehicle requires an accelerating
force F of 2205 to 4410 N.
• Aggressive acceleration levels are ∼0.6 g, which
amounts to a tractive wheel force of 8820N or
higher
• The limit to tractive force is set by the vehicle
mass in terms of normal force at the tyre
patches in contact with the road surface.
 Tractive force connection
• The typical rubber tyre to asphalt road surface
(chipseal  )coefficient of friction is μ=0.85; surface
coefficient of friction is generally lower than these
values due to air conditions, presence of dirt and oil
films, etc.
• Tractive force limits at a tyre patch are given as μFNqc,
where the normal force is that due to quarter car mass.
• Tractive force at the tyre patch in excess of the traction
limit results in wheel slip and a dramatic drop in tyre to
road adhesion.
 Basic values
• Passenger car propulsion power plants require
peak power to vehicle mass ratios of 10
kW/125 kg for acceptable acceleration
performance.
• Sports and luxury cars tend to raise this
metric to over 13 kW/125 kg, whereas
compact and sub-compact vehicles tend to
ratios somewhat less than 10 kW/125 kg.
• In this chapter essential guidelines to
propulsion power plant sizing are discussed,
including the major hybrid components of
M/G, power electronics, and energy storage
system.
Matching the electric machine and the Internal combustion engine
(hybrid case)

• One of the most common matching elements

used in hybrid electric passenger vehicles is
the (1)epicyclic gear like planetary gear set.
• (2)Continuously variable transmissions of the
compression belt and toroidal variator variety
are gaining popularity in compact vehicles and
passenger vans because of seamless
transitions in ratio.
• This planetary gear train consists of a sun gear
(yellow), planet gears (blue) supported by the
carrier (green) and a ring gear (pink). The red
marks show the relative displacement of the
sun gear and carrier, when the carrier is
rotated 45° clockwise and the ring gear is held
fixed.
 epicyclic gear
• Figure 4.1 shows the epicyclic gear in schematic
form. This is a three port mechanical component
used as a speed summing device.
• Most designs rely on a dual input and single
output where one input source is the ICE and
the second input comes from an electric M/G.
• Epicyclic gear ports may be defined as input or
output according to the convection illustrated in
Table 4.1
 Gear ratio
• The epicyclic basic ratio, k =Rring/Rsun
where Rx is the radius of ring and sun gears (can also be
defined in terms of number of gear teeth).
• According to Table 4.1 speed reversal occurs between
sun and ring gear ports,and the speed at these ports is
scaled by the basic ratio, k.
• All other input–output combinations preserve the
direction of speed.
• The basic ratio, 1.5<k<4, is determined by gear
diameters.
 Different types
• There are variations of epicyclic gear sets in which
combinations of epicyclic gears and spur gears are used to
realise dual stage epicyclic sets that are hard connected and
do not rely on clutches to ground any port.
• When clutches are used to ground various ports of an
epicyclic set we have the essential ingredients of an
automatic transmission.
• All automatic transmissions are designed around epicyclic
stages with clutches to affect the step ratio changes plus an
input torque converter to smooth out
the speed variations.
• Spur gears are the most common type
of gears. They have straight teeth, and are
mounted on parallel shafts. Sometimes,
many spur gears are used at once to create
very large gear reductions.
 types of matching

• manual
• 4.1.1 Transmission selection
• 4.1.2 Gear step selection
• automatic
• 4.1.3 Automatic transmission architectures
 Intro- Transmission selection
• Passenger vehicle transmissions can be broadly grouped
into manual shift, automatic, and continuously variable.
• Manual shift transmissions( MT) have predefined step
ratios that vary in a geometric progression.
• Modern MTs have an acceleration factor on the geometric
ratio to realise smoother transitions and better drive quality.
• MTs are virtually always spur gear on a main and counter
shaft or layshaft design.
• Automatic transmissions are designed around planetary
gear sets for power on demand shifting.
 4.1.2 Gear step selection
• Transmission gear ratios follow a geometric
progression that spans the desired range of speed.
• For example, a 4-speed gearbox may have a total
speed ratio of 3.6 : 1 to 3.9 : 1, a 5-speed gearbox
with a ratio of 4.3 : 1 to 5.2 : 1 while a 6-speed
gearbox will have a speed ratio of approximately 6 :
1.
• Depending on the gear selected, an acceleration is
given to the geometric ratio in order to smooth shift
busyness in the higher gears (i.e. smaller steps)
 gear ratio
• The input gear in this gear train has 13 teeth
and the idler gear has 21 teeth. Considering
only these gears, the gear ratio between the
idle and the input gear can be calculated as if
the idler gear was the output gear. Therefore,
the gear ratio is driven/drive = 21/13 ≈1.62
or 1.62:1.
• Gear ratio ζx is defined according to the
empirical relation in (4.2).

• ζ0 represents an overdrive condition,

• overdrive is a term used to describe the
operation of an automobile cruising at
sustained speed 
 gear shift ratio coverage Gsrc
• Equation (4.2) gives a very smooth transition in
step ratios as higher gears are engaged under
load.
• The overall driveline tractive effort at the wheels
follows ahyperbola envelope.
• The step ratios predicted by (4.2) are listed in
Table 4.2, where x is the gear number.
• The gear shift ratio coverage Gsrc = ζ6/ζ1 =5.81,
which is typical of a 6-speedbox.
 4.1.3 Automatic transmission
architectures(intro)video
• Prior to power split architectures, the most popular
choice of transmission has been the automatic.
• The step ratio automatic transmission with torque
converter remains the preferred transmission choice
for crankshaft mounted and belt driven starter
alternator systems.
• During 2002 and 2003 the major transmission
manufacturers in the world have announced new
products offering higher efficiency, plus quieter and
smoother shifting performance
 .
• In addition, these new automatic
transmissions have larger gear shift ratio
coverage and some have entirely new
architectures.
• To illustrate the various stepped automatic
transmission architectures this work will
consider the three transmission types [1–3]
given in Table 4.3.
a transmission gear which transmits to the driven shaft
a speed less than engine speed / 55-50SN
• The Simpson 3-speed stepped automatic is used as the
base under-drive transmission in both the front wheel
drive( FWD) and rear wheel drive(RWD) applications noted.
• This transmissions are capable of realising a 1 : 1 ratio and
have a gear shift ratio coverage of 4.685.
• The 1 : 1 ratio is important for gears that have high
frequency of usage and where highest efficiency is
necessary.
• In the 55-50SN the 1 : 1 ratio is realised without bypassing
the epicyclic gear set.
• The A750E, for example, has a gear shift ratio
coverage of 4.92 : 1, and the presence of 5
steps permits wider ratio coverage so higher
overall gearing is available for improved
vehicle launch, yet sufficient overdrive
remains for highway cruise performance
 FINAL DRIVE. A final drive is that part of a power transmission system

between the drive shaft and the differentia l.

• In Figure 4.3 the final drive for the
transmissions considered is selected based on
the typical vehicle application – for example,
the 55-50SN is used in the VolvoS80 sedan.
The final drive ratios used in this comparison
are FD=2.93 for 55-50SN,FD=3.97 for A750E
Toyota  and FD=3.53 for the 6HP26 used in
bmw.
• the final drive ratio is the last bit of gearing
between your transmission and the driven
wheels. ... In general, a lower final drive
ratio will lead to less torque at the wheels but
a higher top speed
 final drive ratio
• The final drive ratio is the last bit
of gearing between your transmission and the
driven wheels. ... In general, a lower final
drive ratio will lead to less torque at the
wheels but a higher top speed. Meanwhile, a
higher ratio will result in the opposite, i.e.
more torque at the wheels but a lower top
speed
• These architectures are the Simpson, or basic
3-speed design.
• TheWilson type and
• Lepelletier/Ravigneaux type are also
considered
Simpson type
 reduce fuel consumption, the lock up clutch mechanically connects the impeller and turbine
when the vehicle is around 37mph or higher. When the lock up clutch is engaged, 100% of the

power is transferred through the torque converter.

• In Figure 4.4 clutches (Cs), brakes (Bs) and one-
way-clutches (Fs) are shown schematically tied to
the transmission case with ground symbols.
• The main shaft (input) and counter shaft (output)
are lines of symmetry in the schematic.
• Clutch C1 is always the transmission input clutch
on the turbine side of the torque converter.
• The torque converter impeller and turbine are
locked via the lock-up clutch, L/U.
• The Simpson planetary gearset consists of two 
planetary gearsets, both having the same gears and 
gear ratios. It was employed in 
automatic transmissions. It was one of the several
designs invented by American engineer 
Howard Simpson. A Simpson gearset delivers three
forward gears and one reverse, plus neutral. Actually
there are four forward gears, but two of them have
exactly the same ratio, so there are three distinct
gears. Third gear is always direct drive (1:1).
• In the Simpson architecture a double planet epicycle gear set
receives its input torque from the torque converter- turbine at
the inner planet and outputs its torque to the Simpson base
transmission on the countershaft via the second planet set.
• The transmission schematic, including torque converter with
integral M/G rotor, is shown as Figure 4.4.
• Notice that input torque enters via a clutch to either the double
planet sun or inner carrier and exits via the outer carrier.
• Control is imposed over the transmission by brakes on the sun
and ring gears (i.e. diode symbols for a one-way-clutch
• (OWC)).video
Wilson type
 A counter shaft is a shaft that runs parallel to the
main shaft in a gearbox, and carries the pinion wheels.

• TheWilson stepped automatic transmission is simpler

than the Simpson type because there is no counter
shaft.
• The 5-speedWilson type, however, requires three
epicyclic gear sets, clutches and brakes along with an
OWC.
• Figure 4.5 is the schematic for aWilson type
automatic having an M/G for hybrid functionality
mounted to the torque converter impeller as was the
case for the Simpson type.
• The M/G with torque converter would again be
a complete assembly that is aligned and
balanced at the manufacturing plant and
delivered to the transmission assembly plant.
• Both the Wilson type and the Simpson type rely
on one-way clutches for theiroperation.
• If it were possible to eliminate the OWCs, the
transmission would have fewer components
and be simpler to build.
 Lepelletier type
• In 1990, a patent was filed by Lepelletier that described how to build a
stepped ratio automatic transmission without one-way clutches.
• To realise this, a single planetary gear set and a compound or
Ravigneaux planetary gear set are combined along with five shift
elements.
• In the process, a 6-speed transmission evolved.
• The Lepelletier transmission with hybrid M/G is shown schematically
in Figure 4.6.
• Notice that, whereas the Simpson and Wilson type have the output
shaft taken from the carrier of the output planetary set, in the
Lepelletier the output shaft connects to the ring gear of the
Ravigneaux set
• The key features of the Lepelletier transmission are input shaft to
planetary ring gear with its sun gear blocked to chassis.
• The input planetary runs in all gears with the same ratio.
• The feature of the single input planetary is the splitting of engine
speed at the ring (true speed) and carrier (reduced engine speed).
• These two power flow paths are then selected by either clutch C1
or C3 (1 : 1 into secondary planetary) and applied to the
Ravigneaux compound planetary set.
• Output is taken from the Ravigneaux ring gear.
• One drawback, if it could be called that, is that a Lepelletier
architecture is notable to realise a direct drive (1 : 1) ratio from
input to output as both the Simpson and Wilson types do.
 Next class

• Next topic
 Sizing the propulsion motor
(intro)
• An electric machine is at the core of hybrid
propulsion regardless of whether or not the
vehicle is gasoline–electric, diesel–electric or fuel
cell electric.
• Propulsion is via an ac drive system consisting of
an energy storage unit, a power processor, the
M/G and vehicle driveline and wheels.
• Figure 4.8 is a schematic of the hybrid propulsion
system in a multi-converter architecture
 Benefit of b/u
• For example, a lead–acid battery system benefits the
most from a converter interface to an ultra-capacitor
bank. In that case the total energy storage system
weight and cost are minimized.
• With alkaline electrolyte advanced batteries
the benefits of adding an ultra-capacitor begin
to diminish and with lithium ion the benefits
are minimal [4].
 Points-rotation limits
• The motor-generator, M/G, is sized as follows:
• (1)maximum input speed at transmission is
restricted to <12 000 rpm from the engine side
by the rev-limiter function in the electronic
engine controller and on the transmission side
by the proper gear selection.
• (2)It is possible to over-speed the M/G and
engine by improper downshifting of the
transmission while at highway speeds
• (3)Most electric machines rated for vehicle
traction applications are limited to 12 000 rpm
for several inherent reasons:
• rotor burst limits, rotor position sensing encoders
and their attendant digital interface, bearing system,
and critical speeds of the M/G geometry.
 Power of motor-electric fraction, EF,
• (4) in hybrid vehicle M/G torque and power is
dictated by the electric fraction, EF, defined as
the ratio of M/G peak power to total peak power.
• For virtually all hybrid propulsion systems this
fraction ranges from 0.1<EF<0.4. At EF >0.4 the
vehicle electrical storage capacity must be
increased ,otherwise, the vehicle will not perform
well on grades or into strong headwinds without
electric torque to augment the ICE.
 1. Torque and power of motor
• Motor-generator capability curves for torque
and power define the peak operating capability
of the hybrid electric system.
• It is necessary to be clear in understanding that
the capability curve defines the operating
bounds of the hybrid ac drive system.
• Figure 4.9 shows the defining characteristics of
the torque-speed envelope regardless of M/G
technology.
• Intermittent, or peak, output is generally 4/3 to 5/3 of continuous,or rated,
output as shown.
• It is instructive to walk through the operational regions of Figure 4.9 so that
no misunderstanding exists regarding what the M/G is capable of.
• The horizontal line labeled peak torque is 250% of continuous operating
torque and represents a sizing specification carried over from industrial
induction motors.
• Industrial motors have continuous ratings that reflect their thermal
limitations of typically 40◦C to 60◦C temperature rise over ambient necessary
to protect their insulation systems from cumulative degradation and eventual
failure.
• In the past this meant that the industrial induction motor was capable of
momentary (10s to 30s) overdrive conditions without incurring thermal
excursions beyond 180◦C at stator hot spots.
• In automotive applications, particularly hybrid
propulsion, the M/G rating retains this industrial
rating details for continuous and peak intermittent
operation.
• But there are mitigating factors.
• Whereas the industrial motor generally did not have
an electronic interface, it could be overloaded to its
breakdown torque, typically 250% of the thermal
limited torque in class-B designs, for short durations
Capability curve for 4 quadrant operation
• Figure 4.10is given here to emphasize the point that
ac drives employed as hybrid propulsion
components operate in both motoring (1st and 3rd
quadrants) and generating (2nd and 4th quadrants).
• In mild hybrid, applications the M/G operates in the
1st and 4th quadrants only because the engine is
not to be back driven. However, in power split and
other hybrid propulsion architectures the M/G can
and does operate over all four quadrants as shown.
• Mild hybrids are generally internal combustion engines equipped with an
electric machine (one motor/generator in a parallel hybrid configuration)
allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking,
or stopped, yet restart quickly.

• Power-split hybrid or series-parallel hybrid are parallel hybrids that

incorporate power-split devices, allowing for power paths from the ICE to
the wheels that can be either mechanical or electrical. The main principle
is to decouple the power supplied by the primary source from
the power demanded by the driver.
 Usage of power electronics drive
• Motoring operation of the M/G occurs for
positive torque and positive (CCW) speed or
for negative torque and negative (CW) speed.
When the sign of either torque or speed are
reversed the M/G is in generating mode.
• With modern power electronic controllers the
machine is capable of operating anywhere
within the confines of its torque–speed
envelope shown in Figure 4.10.
 Machine sizing
• We now turn our attention to M/G sizing for a hybrid
propulsion system. As is well known, the electric machine is
physically sized by its torque specification.
• 1) Since electric machine torque is determined by the amount
of flux the iron can carry and the amount of current the
conductors can carry plus the physical geometry of the
machine, the following can summarise the sizing process.
• 2)Torque is proportional to scaling constants times, the
product of electric and magnetic loading times, the stator
bore volume.
• Electric loading is defined as the total amp-conductors per
circumferential length (A, in units of A/m) – in effect, it is the
description of a current sheet.
• The electric loading is limited by thermal
dissipation of the conductor bundles.
Magnetic loading is set by the material
properties of the lamination sheets (B, in units
of Wb/m2) and of the physical dimensions of
the airgap.
• 3)The product of electric and magnetic loading
is a volumetric shear force, AB (Nm/m3).
For electric machines of interest to hybrid
propulsion thevolumetric shear force ranges
from 25 000 to 80 000 Nm/m3. The
relationship formachine torque is T = kABD2L
(4.3)
• where k is a constant that includes geometry
variables, and excitation waveshape variables
for voltage and currents.
 2 case
nd

• 4)The bore diameter D, or more accurately the rotor

OD, is the main sizing variable in electric machine
design. Sizing is constrained by four fundamental limits.
• Two of the fundamental sizing constraints have been
discussed thus far: electric and magnetic loading.
• To further explain these sizing constraints it is
important to understand the limitations on current
carrying capacity of copper (aluminium for induction
machines). Current carrying capacity of copper wire is
limited by its thermal dissipation,
• The electric loading, A, for the various
machine technologies listed in Table 4.4, is
determined by using the current density
limitations (4.4), from which the bounds
 How to design motor
• The machine sizing procedure using (4.3), and supported by the
definitions ofelectric and magnetic loading, permits the first
approximation to machine sizing to be accomplished without
resorting to finite element or detailed computer design since the
lamination design has not been fixed at this point, only the
major packaging dimensions.
• The process of working with electromagnetic surface traction as
just described is simillar to having a detailed lamination design,
imposing the electric loading,and then using a magnetics finite
element solver to find the flux and from this usinga post-
processing calculation of the Maxwell shear force at the rotor
surface (after averaging over the pole pair area).
 further constrain
• The machine design is further constrained by a mechanical limit –
the rotor burst condition.
• For this constraint it is common design practice to limit the machine
rotor tangential velocity to <200 m/s. Surface speeds in excess of this
lead to retention issues of various sorts, windings, magnets, etc.
• It is interesting that the mechanical limit is linear with angular
velocity and not quadratic as application of material stress analysis
would reveal.
• The following summary of large electric machines in which rotor
diameter, power rating and surface tangential speed is listed
supports the engineering practice of limiting rotor speeds according
to a linear velocity constraint [5].
• Table 4.5 supports the engineering practice of
limiting electric machine rotor tangential
speeds to less than 200 m/s.
• At higher speeds the issues of critical speed
flexing, rotor retention and eccentricity
become major concerns.
• When the electric machine fundamental sizing constraints are applied to a
hybrid propulsion M/G it is found that magnetic pole pairs become a
strong function of the machine aspect ratio.
• In Figure 4.12 the three ragged hyperbolic traces are
stator outer diameter Dso,)rotor diameter, Dro, and
rotor inner diameter, Dri .
• The rotor inner diameter defines the hub OD.
• In this plot the stator winding aspect ratio, ζhτ , of
lamination stack length, h, to pole pitch, τp, is confined
to the range, 1<ζhτ < 1.5.
• In this example ζhτ = h/τp = 1.1, so that
circumferentially a pole pitch is somewhat shorter
than the stack length.
• The two limit lines in the chart define the package and mechanical
constraints.
• The rotor mechanical burst limit based on maximum shaft speed
is labeled as Dro_lim, whereas the stator package limited OD is
listed as Dso_lim.
• This analysis shows that for the power level given, only stack
lengths greater than about 50mm are admissible in order to meet
the package limitation.
• If the limitation had been due to rotor burst limits, then stack
lengths down to about 34mm would have been admissible.
• The pole number increments from 2 up to >20 by reading right to
left in the plot in Figure 4.12.
Next class
 Sizing the power electronics
(intro)

• All of the electrical power directed to the hybrid propulsion M/G

must pass through the power electronics.
• It has been said that control electronics uses power to process
information and that power electronics uses information to
process power.
• In this section we describe how power electronics is sized to
match the electric machine to the vehicle energy storage system,
via information processed by the control electronics.
• Figure 4.13 is a schematic for the hybrid propulsion system ac
drive system consisting of on board energy storage, power
processing according to control algorithms, and traction actuation
via the M/G and vehicle driveline
 Function of power electronics
• The essentials of ac drive system operation are that power from a dc
source such as a fuel cell, battery or ultra-capacitor is converted to
variable voltage, variable frequency ac power at the M/G terminals,
Vφ and Iφ.
• The M/G then converts this electrical power to mechanical power in
the form of torque and speed at the transmission input shaft, T and ω.
• The power electronics is an electrical matching element in much the
same manner that a gearbox processes mechanical power to match
the engine to the road load requirements.
• The power inverter matches the dc source to the mechanical system
regardless of torque or speed level, provided these quantities are
within its capability
• The power processing capability of power
inverters is directly related to the dc input voltage
and current available.
• Higher voltage means more throughput power
for the same gauge wiring and semiconductor die
area Figure 4.14 captures the power throughput
versus voltage given the system constraint on
current of 250A due in part to cable
size,connector sizes and contactor requirements.
• The reader will appreciate that practical
contactors rated in excess of 250Adc
interruption capability are far too bulky and
expensive for hybrid vehicle applications.
• In the case of battery EVs, contactors using
high energy permanent magnet arc
suppression are used effectively to 500A dc
 Voltage limits
• In Figure 4.14(a) notice that as automotive voltages
move to 42V Power Net the sustainable power levels
will approach 10kW.
• For hybrid propulsion the chart illustrates the
recommendation that voltages in excess of 150V are
advisable.
• With recent advances in power semiconductors
there is ample reason to move to voltages beyond
300V provided the energy storage system does not
suffer and complexity is manageable.
 example
• Figure 4.14(b) reveals that recent hybrid
propulsion systems cluster along the 100 A trend
line with the exception of the new Ford Escape
(200 A)
• At distribution voltages above 600 V special
precautions must be taken, such as rigid conduit.
• For distribution currents higher than 250 A the
contactor necessary to galvanically isolate the
battery becomes excessively bulky
 4.3.1 Switch technology selection
• Power electronic switching components are
classified by process technology as originating
from two layer, three layer or four layer designs.
• The semiconductor diode,for example, is a two
layer planar device consisting of p-type and n-
type doped silicon formed by a diffusion process.
Two layer devices have a single p-n junction.
• Three layer planar devices include all the
transistors in use today and have two junctions.
 Working principle of two layer three layer
devices
• Current control is realised at the low voltage junction at which
carriers are injected into the device and output at a second,
higher voltage, junction at which the injected carriers are
collected.
• Because of the vast difference in voltage levels between the
injecting and collecting junctions, for a given amount of current,
high power amplification occurs. Four layer, three junction,
devices are categorised as thyristors.
• ‘Thyristor’ is a name derived from early work on gas tube
Thyratron switching elements at the General Electric company in
the 1920s that is taken from the Greek – ‘thyra’ for door and
‘tron’ for tool
• Thyristors are then ‘thyratrons’ plus‘transistors’.
• Because there are two junctions from which
carriers are injected in thyristors, and a single
high voltage collector junction, the devices have a
tendency to latch-up due to current injection at
the 3rd junction unless some effort is expendedin
forcing the current gain of this junction to be low
enough to inhibit latch-up.
 volt-amp capability of available power
semiconductor
• The volt-amp capability of available power
semiconductor switching devices is
summarised in Figure 4.15 to contrast their
power handling capability with switching
frequency capability.
• Device terminology is explained in Table 4.7
on page 133, including inventorship and year
introduced.
 4.3.2 .kVA/kW and power factor
• introduced and the relationship ofV-A apparent power based
on device ratings versus real power throughput.
• Virtually all power electronics inverters for hybrid propulsion
employ IGBT device technology.
• There has been some misconception regarding this
technology, particularly in terms of what is a ‘motor-drive’
IGBT.
• This section will address that concern.
• Power semiconductor devices range in voltage withstand
capability of from 3kW to 6.5 kw and current magnitudes of
3 to 4.5 kA.
 Ratings of various power electronics
• Thyristors have the highest kVA ratings, but are generally slow
switching.
• The gate turn off thyristor, GTO, is capable of switching 3 kA at
4.5 kV but is limited to less than 700 Hz.
• The emitter turn off thyristor, ETO, is capable of simultaneously
switching 4 kA at 4.5 kVA at relatively high frequency.
• IGBTs are making enormous progress in both voltage and
current ratings, with some IGBT introductions being capable of
6.5 kV and 3.5 kA (not simultaneously), and high frequency
versions are capable of processing kWs at switching speeds of
up to 100 kHz (e.g. ultra-thin IGBTs)
 the IGBT device which have n+ buffer layer is
known as Punch-Through IGBT.
• Figure 4.16 is a cross-section of the two
principal varieties of IGBTs, the punch
through, PT, and non-punch-through, NPT,
device structure [6,7].
• Table 4.7 lists the major power semiconductor
devices, their accepted schematic symbol, and
various details regarding development and
market introduction
 4.3.3 Ripple capacitor design
• Power electronic inverters may have as much as 60% of
their volume taken by the dc link capacitors needed for
bypassing the load ripple currents.
• The dc bus capacitor is sized not so much for energy or
hold up time, but the the puropse isrms ripple current
must circulate. First-principle understanding of inverters
states that no energy storage occurs in the inverter, only
switching elements.
• However, the high frequency currents generated by the
inverter switching are sourced by the dc link capacitor,
particularly if the battery is located far from the inverter
 Capacitor rating calculation
• The inverter is essentially a class D amplifier controlled to
modulation depths necessary to create the fundamental
component at the output.
• A rule of thumb for sinusoidal ac drives is that the bus capacitors
must be rated for 60% of the M/G phase current.
• For example, if the hybrid propulsion system M/G is rated 200A
rms, then the ripple capacitor bank must be capable of sinking
120A rms of ripple current at the inverter switching frequency,
fs .
• Since fs ranges from 5 kHz to over 20 kHz in production traction
inverters, the capacitor bank must be sized to sink this much
current continuously and remain within its thermal constraints
 RATING OF CAPACITOR AND ESR
• Electrolytic bus capacitors with organic electrolytes are restricted to operation at 85◦C or
less.
• It is true that aluminium electrolytics have temperature ratings of 105◦C to as high as
125◦C, but these are not continuous ratings.
• Multilayer polymer, MLP,type capacitors1 are stable over temperature, resilient under
thermal shock, stableover mechanical stress such as mounting stress, and have ultra-low
ESR.
• It is this term, equivalent series resistance(ESR) that distinguishes a bus capacitor for
ripple current bypassing from a dc link hold-up capacitor for energy storage, such as in an
uninterruptible power supply.
• The ESR of a capacitor is a strong function of operating temperature and frequency of the
ripple current.
•  In a non-electrolytic capacitor and electrolytic capacitors with solid electrolyte the
metallic resistance of the leads and electrodes and losses in the dielectric cause the ESR.
Typically quoted values of ESR for ceramic capacitors are between 0.01 and 0.1 ohms.
• The dc link capacitor ESRmodel consists of a
bulk capacitance component ,thedielectric
loss capacitance modelled as a capacitor value
in parallel with a resistance,and the series
combination of electrolyte and foil resistances.
• Figure 4.17 is the ESR model currently in use
by researchers to characterise losses in the
inverter dc linkcapacitor bank [8]
 4.3.4 Switching frequency and PWM
(case study)
• The example used in this section and shown in Figure 4.13 will be
assumed to be driving an IM automotive starter alternator in
boost mode.
• In this scenario, the IM ISAwill be operating at 8kW of boost mode
• The vehicle powersupply will be a 42V advanced battery with an
internal resistance of 37ohm resulting in an inverter terminal
voltage of 33V. For these conditions the dc link current will be
242Adc.
• The inverter in this example uses sine-triangle ramp comparison in
thecurrent regulator to synthesise the output phase voltage.
• Equation (4.8) gives the fundamental ISA motor phase voltage for
modulation depth m, 0<m<1:
• For this example, ramp comparison (also, sine-triangle)
modulation will be used in the inverter controller to generate the
inverter bridge switching waveforms.
• Ramp comparison is a technique of encoding an analog signal, in
this case the motor phase voltage at its base frequency of 200 Hz,
into digital pulses that are applied to the power semiconductor
gates.
• Inverter current will then flow into or out of the motor according
to which switches in a six switch inverter are activated.
• Figure 4.20 gives a schematic of the inverter switch arrangement,
the controller and load as well as the control signal generation
• The process of generating digital switch
waveforms representing the magnitude of an
analog controlling signal is pulse width
modulation.
• Figure 4.20 illustrates the case of modulation
depth m = 0.80 showing how the switch
conduction periods (state 1) versus its off
periods (state 0) are defined.
• In Figure 4.20 the corresponding phaseAcurrent
is plotted over one cycle. During the positive
portion of Ia(x) the switch current is shown
occurring for the duration of the switch on time.
• The negative current in phase A represents
diode conduction.
• Capacitor ripple current is the summation of
Ia(x) + Ib(x) + Ic(x) and consists ofpulses as
shown in Figure 4.20(d).
Next topic
 4.4 Selecting the energy storage
technology(case study)
• The choice of energy storage system technology is interleaved
with vehicle tractive effort for the customer usage pattern
anticipated.
• An example will help clarify the process.
• In this example a 27 seat city bus is converted to a series hybrid
by adding a generator to its CNG fuelled ICE. The bus is assumed
to have standing room for an additional 25 passengers. The bus
has a total length of 12.5 m, height of 2.85m and width of 2.5m
and weights 17 500 kg with no passengers and a half tank of
fuel.Loaded, and for a 34 : 66% split front to rear, the resultant
axle loads are 7300 kg and14 200 kg.
• Maximum speed is 90 kph and it is desired to accelerate at 0.11 g
and brake at 0.051 g nominal.
• The CNG fuelled ICE is rated 208kW with a 75kW generator.
• Battery and capacitor pack energy storage is required to supply
113kW.
• Electric energy storage is based on nickel-cadmium technology in
parallel to an ultra-capacitor bank.
• The traction system bus voltage is set at Ubus-max = 500Vdc
maximum andallowed to droop to Ubus-min = 400Vdc minimum.
• For Ni-Cd, Ucell = 1.35Vnominal, Ucell-max = 1.4V and Ucell-dchg
= 1.1V.
• The usage pattern, or drive cycle, for the city bus circuit will be
modelled ,include an average occupancy by passengers of
60%during morning or evening commuting hours.
• Particulars of the hybrid bus are listed in Table 4.8.
• The cycle is based on timed data for acceleration, cruise, braking
and stoping both highway and city scenarios. Acceleration occurs
for 20% of the event, cruisefor 14% with the remainder braking
and stopped.
• Maximum speed on the highwayportion is 90 kph and for the city
it is 60 kph, if that.
• Figure 4.21 illustrates a typical,ten event, city commuter bus
driving circuit
• Typical parameters for the city bus include curb mass, passenger
seating (andstanding) capacity, a model for the standard
passenger mass, target speeds for the bus in highway and city
driving, and so on.
• The next step in building the model to assess the energy storage
system capacity requirements is an understanding of the bus
tractive effort and driveline losses.
• First,we develop an approximation to tractive effort requirements.
• Figure 4.22 illustrates the efficiency map of the bus driveline so
that tractive effort and speed requirements at the wheels can be
translated to source power at the engine generator and energy
storage system.
 Explanation 4.22
• Vehicle ancillary and accessory loads for this study are modeled as a
fixed power drain, Pacc = 5kW, to include all totel loads (engine
controls, lights,entertainment system), cabin climate control (mainly
air handling fans) and hybrid supporting subsystems for electric
machine coolant pumps, inverter coolant pumps and fans as well as
energy storage system climate control.
• The tractive effort, Ftr , and vehicle speed, V , in Figure 4.22 needed
during acceleration and braking (and grade climbing if present) are
imposed during the particular interval of the drive cycle noted in
Figure 4.21.
• When the vehicle is cruising,the power source delivers an electrical
power, Pe, diminished by the electric driveand driveline losses, that
matches the resultant road load as illustrated in Figure 4.22
• The next design detail before constructing the
power source sizing model is a description of
the city bus gross mass during its drive around
the fixed circuit.
• For our analysis we assume that the number
of passengers during heavy commute periods
of the day will have an expected value, Nexp,
given as
• The number of passengers is a random variable during each
drive cycle interval.
• We assume that the mean value shown in (4.11) equals the
average occupancy state d earlier of 60%.
• Using this value we assign occupancy numbers as a random
process having uniform distribution.
• For this particular choice of occupancy one scenario may
appear as shown in Figure 4.23as the bus makes its rounds
from rural to urban settings on its circuit.
• Many other choices of assigning occupancy numbers can, of
course, be made
• In the process of calculating the road load, the
simulator will adjust the gross massof the bus
during each interval to correspond to the total
number of passengers, each at an assumed
standard mass of mp, noted in Table 4.8.
• This will impose a burden on the tractive effort
necessary for acceleration, which in turn will
be reflected back up the driveline to the power
supply.
• The final step is to assign a control strategy to the simulation of
bus road load and its attendant power supply needed to meet
our sizing requirements.
• To do this we select an energy storage system technology and
subject it to the customer usage profile.
• For the present hybrid city bus example we will assume a nickel-
cadmium battery packin combination with an ultra-capacitor
bank.
• Next, we state the limitations of the selected technologies in
terms of discharge rate and charge acceptance rate during
generator recharging or during recuperation of vehicle kinetic
energy
 power supply explanation
• Part of the system sizing study is the selection of system voltage.
• Work done on this topic generally focuses on losses within the
electrical distribution system of the vehicle.
• An overarching requirement is that voltage at the loads remains
within 97% of the source (battery) terminal voltage. This
distribution system efficiency requirement both drives the
selection of cable sizes and places a lower limit on distribution
losses noted in Figure 4.22.
• In low voltage systems the distribution system losses have a
marked dependence on system voltage [11]. This effect is
illustrated in Figure 4.24,where load power is a parameter.
• To realise a net distribution and inverter component
efficiency of 95%, as listed in Figure 4.22 and noting
that a power electronic inverter at high voltage will
have>97% efficiency nominal, we see that our
distribution system must have >97% efficiency.
• In Figure 4.24 it is easy to see that this means
system voltage levels of several hundred volts (off
the chart in the Figure, having a logarithmic
abscissa
Various storage technology
 4.4.1 Lead–acid technology
• The most cost effective secondary storage battery is the flooded
lead–acid battery.
• This technology today costs approximately inr35/Ah for a 6-cell
module.
• Maintenance free, valve regulated, lead–acid( VRLA)and absorbant
glass mat(AGM) lead–acid batteries are capable of higher cycle life
than the flooded lead–acid type.
• The main disadvantage of lead–acid for hybrid vehicle traction
application is its low cycle life.
• Even deep discharge lead–acid batteries such as those used in
battery-EV traction applications are not capable of much beyond
400 cycles (to 80% depth of discharge, DOD).
• Table 4.10 illustrates the differences between battery-EV
and hybrid vehicle batteries.
• In this illustration a thin-metal-foil (TMF) lead–acid
battery is shown that was developed during the mid-
1990s by Johnson Controls and Bolder Technologies Corp.
• as a very high power (thin electrode) secondary cell. A
typical 1.2 Ah, 2.1V cell in a cylindrical package,
φ22.86×L72.26mm, has a foil thickness of 0.05 mm, a
plate thickness that is less than 0.25mm and a plate to
plate spacing when spiral wound
 Combination of b&u
• Combinations of secondary batteries, principally VRLA, with ultra-capacitors
in the presence of a dc/dc converter interface, represent a good application.
• This is because the VRLA can provide the energy storage while the ultra-
capacitor handlesall the transient power, as was done in the hybrid city bus
example.
• That is, if the ultra-capacitor and its attendant dc/dc converter can be sized
and implemented at less than the cost of an advanced battery such as nickel-
metal-hydride, NiMH, or lithium ion. Then the combination would make a
good business case: the ultra-capacitor delivers all peaking power and the
VRLA the continuous power.
• However, with the cost of power electronics still at $0.14/W the complete
system is too expensive at high power. However, when lead–acid batteries are
used in mild-hybrid vehicles the economics are somewhat better, but life and
warranty remain issues.
 4.4.2 Nickel metal hydride
• The previous section has shown that, in
comparison to lead–acid battery systems, NiMH
can far surpass it in energy and power density, plus
have an energy-lifetime that is nearly seven times
longer.
• In today’s market the NiMH battery is the preferred
high cycle life energy storage medium. One serious
drawback, as Table 4.10 shows, is that the NiMH
system does not respond well in cold temperatures
• NiMH secondary battery systems are far
superior to lead–acid and even VRLA in terms
of turnaround efficiency and cycle life.
• At issue is their exorbitant cost of
approximately inr1800/Ah in an 18 cell
module. This is more than 20 times the cost of
VRLA in a similar rated module, except for
cycle life
• application a NiMH battery system may be rated 26
Ah at 42V, whereas its alternative VRLA would be
rated 104 Ah at 42V.
• The difference is due to the fact that NiMH can
deliver four times the energy of a VRLA for the same
Ah rating, because it can be cycled through much
deeper SOC swings.
• VRLA batteries must be maintained near 80% SOC or
higher to ensure adequate life, whereas the NiMH
can be designed for operation at 50% SOC.
 4.4.3 Lithium ion
• Plastic lithium ion technology has the potential to significantly impact
vehicle integration issues currently impeding the application of hybrid
power trains.
• Plastic lithium ion provides packaging flexibility, reduced mass and low
maintenance.
• It is promoted as an emerging technology having the potential to meet
all energy and power needs, manufacturer cost targets and packaging
requirements of the vehicle integrator (also the manufacturer).
• This technology is sometimes referred to as lithium polymer (LiPo). As
with conventional lithium ion, the LiPo is a ‘rocking chair’ electro-
chemistry because the lithium ions move back and forth through the
electrolyte without undergoing chemical change.
• At the same time the lithium molecules move back and forth
across the electrolyte, the electrons are released to do the
samein the external circuit.
• Because the electrode material in a LiPo structure undergoes
a reversible change during oxidation, no chemical
reorganisation need take place so there should be little
degradation of the cell.
• Hence, the LiPo has the potential of a long operating life.
• However, LiPo is a thin film technology, so its durability in
automotive harsh environments could be problematic.
Specifics of LiPo technology are tabulated in Table 4.11.
• The costs of lithium ion battery systems are today at least four
times higher than SLI batteries.
• The lithium polymer battery discussed above has cost metrics
of 400–550 $/kWh without its supporting subsystems and 500–
700 $/kWh with a supporting battery management unit in a
42V PowerNet.
• From Table 4.11 we see that LiPo hasa power to energy ratio
(P/E = 12 and higher) well into the range of hybrid applicability.
• Lithium polymer is capable of high pulse power because the cell
structure used is composed of a number of bicells in parallel
instead of plates.
• The electrodes are immersed in a polymer matrix akin to a
sponge that retains the liquid electrolyte. Variations in the
electrode thickness then have direct bearing on cell power and
energy characteristics.
• Thin electrodes are high power, while thicker electrodes, with
more volume of micropores, have higher energy.
• The bicell laminations can be made to any length or width.
Prismatic cell construction is readily obtained, so that very thin,
flat geometries can be fabricated that make installation easier.
• The cell electrode described forms the basic structure of the
electronic double layer capacitor: the ultra-capacitor
 4.4.4 Fuel cell
• The market for fuel cells is split amongst high volume
transportation, particularly personal transportation, stationary
applications and specialty applications.
• Each of these niches is driven by very different volume and cost
pressures.
• Specialty applications have volumes in the 100s of units per year
and consist of spacecraft power supply as well as prototype
applications to city busses.
• Costs are currently at or above $3000/kW, with most development
funding provided by industrial developers.
• Fuel cell markets are now beginning to open up with applications
as standby power
• generation units. During this growth phase the volumes
must exceed 1000s of units per year and cost is expected
to drop into the $300/kW range to be acceptable.
• Mass market acceptance as a fuel cell hybrid requires
that volumes enter into the 100 000 s of units per year
with costs reaching a target of $30/kW to be competitive
with today’s internal combustion engine, which costs
from $35 to $50/kW.
• What remains unclear is the timescale over which the
costs will decrease by two orders of magnitude
• A Pugh analysis of the more promising hydrogen
storage technologies is summarised in Table 4.13.
• In this chart the column for stand time reflects the
concerns over fuel escape due to venting or inability
to access the fuel such as a metal hydride that must
be heated in order to release the trapped gas.
• The relative ranking of hydrogen storage technologies
by attributes done in Table 4.13 shows that at the
present stage of technology development compressed
gas at 5000 psi offers the most viable solution
 Ultra-capacitor
• Electrolytic double layer capacitors are discussed in
depth in Chapter 10.
• For this introduction to ultra-capacitors it will
suffice to contrast their energy and power densities
with advanced batteries.
• Much is being written about ultra-capacitors for
hybrid propulsion application as a means to remove
the heavy cycling load from the electrochemical
battery, particularly when the battery is lead–acid.
• A list of available ultra-capacitor suppliers is given in Table
4.14 along with product specifications and calculated
specific energy and power values.
• This list is not exhaustive but representative of the ultra-
capacitor market today.
• Ultra-capacitor specific energy is determined from constant
current testing conditions.
• The ultra-capacitor is preconditioned to its final voltage and
held for sufficient time so that it is fully charged. Constant
current discharge results in a linear slew rate of cell voltage
to zero
• The vehicle electrical loads remain connected
to the 42V battery regardless of whether it is
connected to the ISA or not.
• The switching combination choices are shown
in Figure 4.35
• The switch functions in this ISA architecture are listed in
Table 4.15.
• The battery is a 28 Ah lead acid module, the capacitor is
a Maxwell–Montena 60V, 113 F module built from the
series connection of 24 each 2700 F power cache ultra-
capacitors capable of 10kW for 12 s discharge.
• Compared to a single lead–acid battery alone, the
switched ultra-capacitor architecture increased boosting
power from 4kW to 10kW and increased regeneration
power levels from 1kW to 10kW in a compact car.
 4.4.6 Flywheels
• Sometimes called a ‘mechanical’ capacitor, flywheels have presented
major materials engineering challenges to energy storage system
designers because of the high angular speeds involved and the need to
provide containment.
• During the 1990s there was much development work in the US,
especially at the US national laboratory at Oak Ridge near Knoxville,
TN.
• During those programs, flywheels that were very lightweight, with
composite or glass fibre rotors spinning in vacuum or hydrogen
atmosphere, were constructed.
• Spin losses, the main self-discharge mechanism, were minimised by
use of magnetic bearings. Power conversion into and out of the
flywheel is via an ac electric drive
• This in fact is the issue that continues to
challenge flywheel energy storage,that the
energy is not stored in the form it will be used
in.
• Unlike ultra-capacitorswhere energy is stored
in the same form it is used in, mechanical
flywheels requirethe electrical–mechanical–
electrical conversion process and hence incur
significant efficiency loss.
 Important question
• What are the basic constraints consider for power plant size?
• What are the various acceleration levels in a vehicle?
• What is the connection between Tractive force and tire resistance
• What is spur gear
• Explain gear ratio
• What are the various gears used of combine the motor and ic engines.
• Summarize/write a short notes on manual gear and transmission
selection
• Define gear shift ratio coverage Gsrc
• Explain final drive ratio
• Short brief about automatic Transmission with suitable diagram
• Explain Simpson automatic transmission system with suitable diagram
• Explain Wilson type automatic transmission system with suitable diagram
• Explain Lepelletier automatic transmission system with suitable diagram
• Write a summary rotation limit of propulsion system
• Explain electric fraction
• Explain capability curve of propulsion system
• What is mild hybrid and power split hybrid archistructure
• Explain volumetric shear force
• Explain the Propulsion motor size based on stack size
• Explain the Function of power electronics
• Explain the voltage capability of various electronics switches
• Explain various voltage levels used in electric vehicle
• Explain volt-amp capability of available power semiconductor
• Differentiate Punch-Through IGBT and non punch through
• Short summary on ripple capacitor design
• Explain ESR
• Explain the switch frequency used in power electronics drive
• Explain various switch’s switching frequency
• Explain valve lead acid battery compare with other battery
• Explain Nickel metal hydride compare with other battery
• Explain lithium ion compare with other battery
• Explain fuel cells compare with other battery
• Explain Electrolytic double layer capacitors and its technical
specification