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Physics Notes Motion
Physics Notes Motion
Scalar and vector quantities As directed numbers: Take east as the positive direction.
Example 2 Name two other examples of vector quantities. As directed numbers: Take east as the positive direction.
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Example 4 Two forces, 3 N east and 4 N south act on an Example 6 A car travels 1.2 km N30°E and then 0.7 km
object. Find the net force (resultant force) on the object. S75°W. Find the displacement (change in position) of the car
from its starting point.
The net force is given by the vector addition of the two forces.
r
Total displacement s from the starting point
Method 1 Draw an accurate scaled diagram, e.g. 1cm : 1 N = 1.2 km N30°E + 0.7 km S75°W
and measure the length of the resultant vector and its
direction.
North
105°
3N 45°
30°
θ φ
4N
East
r
= + Fnet
5 11
60 15
60°
90° 90°
= 75° 20
45°
75
φ
Fnet = 15 2 + 20 2 + 5 11( )2
= 30 N
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Example 1 A hiker has a displacement of 5 km N30°E. How Using directed numbers, the position of an object at P is -6
far to the north and how far to the east is the hiker from her km, at Q is +7 km, and at R is +2 km.
initial position?
If the number line is running in the east-west direction, the
position of an object at P is 6 km W, at Q is 7 km E, and at R
N is 2 km E.
30°
-6 0 +2 +7 x (km)
OQ
Vertical: 20 cos 30° ≈ 17 N When an object moves its position x changes with time t.
r r
Change in position ∆x is also called displacement s . It is
Horizontal: 20 sin 30° = 10 N r r
20 N defined as final position x f – initial position xi .
30°
r r r r
s = ∆x = x f − x i
It is a vector quantity.
Example 3 An object slides down a smooth plane inclined at
Note: Displacement does not depend on the actual path
30° to the horizontal. The force of gravity on the object is
followed by the object. Only the initial and the final positions
10 N. Resolve the force of gravity into two perpendicular determine the displacement, e.g. refer to the previous
components: one parallel to the inclined plane and the other example, if the object moves from R through Q to P, the
perpendicular to it. r
displacement is s = − 6− + 2= − 8 km or 8 km W.
Motion can be described in terms of position, velocity and The distance d travelled is the actual length of the path
acceleration. They are vector quantities. followed by the object. It is a scalar quantity.
P O R Q
-6 0 +2 +7 x (km)
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Position-time graph Example 4 A motor-cyclist travelled along a straight road
running in the NE direction. The following position-time
Example 1 The following graph shows the position of an graph shows the motion of the motor-cyclist. NE is taken as
object at different time. The motion is in the east-west the positive direction. A petrol station is the origin O.
direction. East is chosen to be the positive direction.
Describe the motion in terms of positions, directions, x (km)
displacement and distance travelled. 1.8
x (m)
-0.7
Example 3 A person walks 1 km north, 4 km west and then 4 Example 1 A car travels on a straight road for 30 km at 60 km
km south. h-1 and then 80 km h-1 in the opposite direction for half of an
(a) What is the displacement of the person? hour. Find its average velocity and average speed.
(b) What is the total distance travelled?
Forward: 30 km for 0.50 h.
4 1 Opposite direction: 40 km for 0.50 h.
r
4 θ Displacement s = + 30+ − 40= − 10 km.
Distance travelled d = 30 + 40 = 70 km.
Time taken ∆t = 0.50 + 0.50 = 1.0 h.
r 4
(a) s = 4 2 + 32 = 5 , θ = tan −1 ≈ 53° . r −
10 − 70
3 vav = = 10 km h-1. vav = = 70 km h-1.
r 1.0 1.0
∴ s = 5 km S53°W. Note: Average speed is NOT equal to the magnitude of
average velocity in general.
(b) d = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9 km.
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Instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed Example 1 From the v-t graph below, find the average
velocity and the average speed. Take north to be the positive
Instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed are simply direction.
called velocity and speed respectively. The speed of a car is
given by the speedometer reading and the velocity is given by v (ms-1)
the speedometer and compass readings. Therefore, speed is
equal to the magnitude of velocity. +
10
The two quantities can be calculated according to the
definitions:
r
r s d
Velocity v ≈ and speed v ≈ for ∆t → 0 , i.e. very 0 5 15 20 25 t (s)
∆t ∆t
short time interval. -5
Velocity-time graph 1
0-5: s1 = × − 5 × 5= − 12.5 m
The motion of an object moving in a straight line can be 2
1
represented by a velocity-time graph. 5-25: s 2 = × (5 + 20 )× + 10= + 125 m
2
Example 1 The following graph shows the velocity of an Displacement = s1 + s 2 = + 112.5 m
object at different time. The motion is in the east-west +
direction. East is chosen to be the positive direction. Describe 112.5 +
Average velocity = = 4.5 , i.e. 4.5 ms-1 N.
the motion in terms of velocity, speed, direction. 25
Distance travelled = s1 + s 2 = 12.5 + 125 = 137.5 m
v (ms-1)
137.5
Average speed = = 5.5 ms-1.
10 25
0 t
Speeding up or slowing down
0 t
When the velocity and acceleration vectors point in the same
direction the object speeds up. When they are opposite in
direction, the object slows down.
v v
Speeding up:
r r
v v
0 t 0 t r r
a a
Slowing down:
r r
Gradient of a position-time graph gives velocity, and area v v
‘under’ a velocity-time graph gives displacement (not
r r
position). a a
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Acceleration-time graph (a) Change in velocity= 60 km h-1 E − 40 km h-1 E
= 20 km h-1 E ≈ 5.6 ms-1 E.
Example 1 The following a-t graph shows the motion of a
ball-bearing projected vertically upwards (taken as the 5.6
positive direction) under the influence of gravity (assume (b) Average acceleration = = 0.56 ms-2 E.
constant) with negligible air resistance. 10
(d)
v (ms-1)
Example 2 The following a-t graph shows the motion of a +
tennis ball dropped from a great height with air resistance. 16.7
Downward is taken as the positive direction. +
11.1
-2
a (ms )
v v 0 t Time
0 t0 Time
Free fall vertical motion a
When an object moves under the influence of gravity only, it b
Acceleration (at t = t 0 ) = gradient of tangent = −
is in free fall. Close to the surface of the earth, acceleration a
due to gravity can be considered as constant and has an Velocity
approximate value of 9.8 ms-2. The five equations for constant
acceleration can be used in free fall vertical motion. The v av
upward direction is usually taken as the positive direction.
Newton used the term mass to stand for quantity of matter in a Change in motion and its cause
body. It is measured in kilogram (kg). The more mass a body
has, the harder it is to change its velocity. A change in motion of a body is caused by the action of a
force (net/resultant force if there are more than one force) on
According to Newton, all bodies are attracted by the earth. the body.
This attractive force on a body is called the force of gravity r
on the body or simply the weight of the body. It acts at the The rate of change in motion (i.e. acceleration a ) of an object
r
centre of mass point (approximated as the geometric centre) of of mass m under the action of a net force Fnet is summarised
the body. At the surface of the earth the force of gravity has an in Newton’s second law. It states that acceleration is directly
approximate value of 9.8 N for each kilogram mass of the proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the
body. mass of the object, i.e.
r r r
∴W = mg , where m is the mass of a body in kg, g has the 1
r a ∝ Fnet and a ∝ .
value 9.8 Nkg-1 at the surface of the earth, and W the weight m
of the body in N. F F
∴ a ∝ net , ∴ a = k net .
r m m
The value of g is not constant. It decreases as a body moves
away from the earth. If a is measured in ms-1, Fnet in N and m in kg, then k = 1, and
r r
W and g are both vectors pointing towards the centre of the Fnet
a= or Fnet = ma .
earth, i.e. downwards. m
r r
r Furthermore, Fnet and a are in the same direction,
g
r r
∴ Fnet = ma .
r
W This is commonly known as Newton’s second law of motion.
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Newton’s Third Law Reaction force
When two objects A and B interact with each other, if A When an object is pushed (pulled) along a rough surface, the
r
exerts a force on B, B exerts a force of the same magnitude in reaction force R on the object consists of two components:
the opposite direction on A. This is known as Newton’s third one parallel to the surface (force of friction of surface on
law. One of the pair of forces is called action and the other object) and one perpendicular to the surface (normal force of
reaction. surface on object).
r r
Example 1 An apple falling towards the earth R N
Apple Motion
r r
Fea Ff
r
r Note: The diagram above shows only the reaction force R .
Fae There are other forces (not shown) on the object, e.g. air
Earth resistance, force of gravity.
Example 2 An apple resting on a box. Force of gravity and normal force are equal and opposite in
direction. They add to zero. ∴net force equals pushing force.
r r
Fba r Fnet +
130 +
a= = ≈ 0.542 , u = 0 , s = + 2.3 , find v.
m 240
Use v 2 = u 2 + 2as , v ≈ + 1.6 , i.e. 1.6 ms-1 forward.
r
Fab Example 2 A 2-kg object is at rest on an plane inclined at 30°
to the horizontal.
(a) Determine the magnitude and direction of the reaction
force of the plane on the object.
r (b) What are the magnitudes of the normal force and friction?
Fba : Normal force of the box on the apple. r
r R
Fae : Force of the apple on the box.
120
120 km h-1 = = 33.3 ms-1, 62 km h-1 = 17.2 ms-1.
3.6
u = + 33.3 , v = + 17.2 , t = 17 , find a. W = mg = 19.6 N
v −u −
Use v = u + at , a = = 0.95 ms-2. r r r
t Note: Reaction force R is resolved into N and F f in the
Average force = ma = 360× − 0.95≈ − 341 N, i.e. 341 N opposite diagram.
to the direction of motion.
(a) Apply Newton’s first law to the vertical component:
+
Example 4 A 2-kg object slides down a plane inclined at 30° N + + 20 sin 30+ − 19.6 = 0 , N = 9.6 N.
to the horizontal. The coefficient of friction between the
object and the plane is µ = 0.2 . (b) F f = µN = 0.3 × 9.6 ≈ 2.9 N.
(a) Calculate the friction between the object and the plane.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the reaction force of the plane
(c) R = 2.9 2 + 9.6 2 ≈ 10 N.
on the object.
(c) Using components parallel and perpendicular to the plane, r
determine the net force on the object. (d) Horizontal component: Fnet = + 20 cos 30°+ − 2.9≈ + 14 N.
(d) Determine the acceleration of the object.
Example 5 A 2-kg object is pulled along a horizontal floor FB = 220 2 + 170 2 − 2(220)(170) cos 43° ≈ 150 N.
with a rope making an upward angle of 30° to the floor. The sin φ sin 43°
= , φ ≈ 51° , ∴θ ≈ 129° .
tension in the rope is 20 N and µ = 0.3 . 170 150
(a) Determine the normal force of the floor on the object. r r
(b) Calculate the friction force against the object’s motion. FB is 150 N and makes an angle of 129° with FA .
(c) Determine the reaction force R of the floor on the object.
(d) Calculate the net force on the object.
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Example 7 A block of mass 15 kg hangs from three cords. Work done by a constant force
What are the tensions in the cords? r
Work done W by a constant force F on an object over a
r r r
28° 47° displacement s is defined as W = Fs if F and s are in the
same direction. W in this situation is a positive amount of
T1 T2 work and the object gains energy.
T3 r r
If F and s are in opposite directions. W is a negative amount
of work, W = − Fs and the object loses energy.
62° 43°
r r
If F and s are at an angle θ ° , the work done is given by
r
T3 = W = mg = 15 × 9.8 = 147 N. W = Fs cos θ ° . F
r r r r
Apply Newton’s first law: T1 + T2 + T3 = 0 .
θ°
r
T1 s
62°
75° W = Fs cos θ ° can be interpreted in two ways:
147 (1) W = Fs cos θ ° = (F cos θ °)s , i.e. displacement s × the
r r
T2 component of F in the direction of s .
43° (2) W = Fs cos θ ° = F (s cos θ °) , i.e. force F × distance moved
r
in the direction of F .
T1 147 T2 147
= , = . Work and energy are scalar quantities and they are measured
sin 43° sin 75° sin 62° sin 75°
∴T1 ≈ 104 N, T2 ≈ 134 N. in joules (J).
+
r r r
12 + F4 on 3 = 3× + 1.0 , F4 on3 = − 9.0 N, ∴ F3on 4 = 9.0 N.
(c) Consider the 5-kg box only. Example 2 How much work is done by the force of gravity of
the earth on the moon in a month?
r
F4 on 5
Force of gravity does no work on the moon because the force
of gravity on the moon and the motion (velocity) of the moon
r are always perpendicular in direction.
F4 on 5 = 5× + 1.0= + 5.0 N.
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r r r
Area under force-position graph Note: In F = −k∆x , F is the force exerted by the spring, not
r the force in compressing or extending the spring. The minus
When force F on an object is constant and in the same r r
r sign indicates that F and ∆x are in opposite directions. The
direction as s , the rectangular area under the force-position proportionality constant k (Nm-1) is called spring constant.
graph from x1 to x 2 represents the work done on the object
r
by F .
Normal state
Force (N)
F
Compressed state
r
F
0 x1 x2 Position (m) r
∆x
W = area = F (x 2 − x1 ) = Fs .
Extended state
r
r F
When force F on an object changes with its position, area
r r
under the force-position graph still represents work done by F ∆x
r r
if F and s are in the same direction. Estimate the area if it
cannot be determined by simple calculation. r
F
Force (N) r
k ∆x
Fav
0 x1 x2 Position (m)
r
0 ∆x Position
The estimated area ≈ Fav (x 2 − x1 ) = Fav s .
The area of the shaded region gives the work done in
r
Example 1 A 8.0-kg block moves in a straight line on a compressing or extending the spring by ∆x .
horizontal frictionless surface under the action of a force that
varies with position (see graph below). How much work is 1 r2
W= k ∆x
done by the force as the block moves from the origin to 2
x = 5.0 m?
Example 1 A spring is extended by 2.0 cm when a 5.0-kg
F (N)
load is suspended from it.
(a) Find the force required to stretch it by 5.0 cm.
10 (b) Determine the amount of work required to stretch it by 5.0
cm.
(c) Find the extra work required to stretch it by another 1.0
4
cm.
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Different kinds of energy It is the vertical displacement that determines the change in
gravitational potential energy. Horizontal displacement does
Elastic potential energy: Energy is stored in a spring when it not change the gravitational potential energy of an object.
is compressed or extended.
This energy is called elastic potential energy. For an ideal
spring it is given by Level 2
1 r2
Eep = k ∆x .
2 ∆h h2
1 2 1 2
h mgha + mv a = mghb + mvb or ∆E k + ∆E gp = 0 .
2 2
Ground level This is known as the law of conservation of energy.
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In the case of a moving object compressing a spring or Example 3 A 72.0-kg person attempts a bungee jump. The
extending a rubber cord, the law of conservation of energy can bungee cord is 35 m long and it is elastic (i.e. it follows
be expressed in terms of any two or all three of Ek , E ep and Hooke’s law) with k = 250 Nm-1. Air resistance is to be
E gp . ignored. Consider the person as a point mass starting from
rest, and just reaching the water.
1 1 1 1
mv a + k (∆x a ) = mvb + k (∆xb ) or
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
∆E gp + ∆E ep = 0 .
1 1 1 1
mva + k (∆xa ) = mghb + mvb + k (∆xb ) or
2 2 2 2
mgha + (a) How high is the bridge above the water?
2 2 2 2
∆E k + ∆E gp + ∆E ep = 0 . (b) Determine the speed of the person at 45 m below the
bridge.
(a) Let x be the vertical distance between the bridge and the
Example 1 A simple pendulum is released from position a to water. The person has gravitational potential energy at the
b (lowest point). Find the speed of the pendulum bob at b. bridge, and elastic potential energy at the water level.
1 1
mgha + k (∆xa ) = mghb + k (∆xb ) , where a stands for at
2 2
60° 2 2
the bridge, and b at the water level.
1
72.0(9.8)x = × 250( x − 35) ,
1.0 m 2
a 2
5.6448 x = (x − 35) , x ≈ 52 m.
2
b 1 1 1 1
mva + k (∆xa ) = mghb + mvb + k (∆xb ) ,
2 2 2 2
(b) mgha +
2 2 2 2
From a to b the distance fallen = 1.0 − 1.0 cos 60° = 0.5 m. where a stands for at the bridge, and b at 45 m below the
1 1 2 bridge.
mgha + mva2 = mghb + mvb ,
2 2 1
1
72.0(9.8)(52) = 72.0(9.8)(52 − 45) + (72.0)vb 2 + 1 (250)(45 − 35)2 ,
2 2
m(9.8)(0.5) = mvb , vb ≈ 3.1 ms-1.
2
2 vb ≈ 23 ms-1.
Example 2 A toy car (0.25 kg) moving at 1.5 ms-1 hits a Power
spring, causing a maximum compression of 2.0 cm to the
spring. Find the maximum force exerted by the spring on the Power is a scalar quantity that measures the rate at which
toy car. work is done by a force, or energy is transferred or
transformed.
b a
r W ∆E
F Average power is defined as Pav = , or Pav = , where
∆t ∆t
W (J) is the amount of work done, ∆E (J) amount of energy
transferred and ∆t (s) the time taken.
1 1 1 1
mv a + k (∆x a ) = mvb + k (∆xb ) ,
2 2 2 2
Example 1 A load of bricks (420 kg) is to be lifted by a winch
2 2 2 2 to a height of 20 m in 1.0 min. What must be the minimum
1
(0.25) 1.5 2 = 1 k − 0.020 2 , ∴ k ≈ 1.4 × 10 3 Nm-1.
( ) ( ) power of the winch motor?
2 2
r r r ∆E gp = 420 × 9.8 × 20 = 82320 J
( )( )
F = − k∆x , F = − 1.4 × 10 3 − 0.020 ≈ + 28 N.
∆E 82320
P= = ≈ 1.4 × 10 3 W
∆t 60
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The actual power must be greater than this because friction Momentum of an object changes when there is a net force
r
and other retarding forces work against the lift. The winch is Fnet on the object for a period of time ∆t .
not 100% efficient. A fraction of the total amount of work
The net force causes the object to accelerate (i.e. to change its
done by the motor is used to lift the bricks, and the rest
velocity). Hence there is a change in momentum.
changes to heat and sound. r
An impulse I is given to the object by the net force.
Efficiency
Impulse is a vector quantity which is defined as the product of
useful , amount , of , work , done net force and time.
Efficiency = × 100% , r r
total , amount , of , work , done I = Fnet ∆t
useful , power
or Efficiency = × 100% . Impulse is measured in Ns.
total , power
r r
Example 1 A motor produces 9000 J of heat while I is in the same direction as Fnet .
performing 2700 J of useful work. What is the efficiency of r r
the motor? Impulse changes the momentum of an object, and I = ∆p ,
r r r r r
where ∆p = p f − pi = mv − mu is the change in momentum.
Total energy output of motor = 2700 + 9000 = 11700 J.
2700
Efficiency = × 100% ≈ 23% .
11700
Area under force-time graph
Example 2 A 38-percent-efficient power plant puts out 700 The area under a force-time graph represents impulse exerted
MW of electrical power. on an object by a net force. If the force is constant, the area is
(a) What is the rate of energy consumption of the power plant?
rectangular and therefore equals Fnet ∆t .
(b) How much heat is released into the atmosphere in an hour?
Force F (N)
r r 0 10 Time t (ms)
p = mv
r
m v
The impulse exerted on the golf ball is given by the area under
the F-t graph. This area can be approximated by the area
under the horizontal line Fav (average force).
Momentum is measured in kg ms-1.
r r
p is in the same direction as v .
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Example 1 A 50-kg crate is initially at rest on the floor. A For the 10-s interval find
horizontal net force of 20 N acts on it for 2.0 s. (a) the impulse exerted on the object;
(a) What is the initial momentum of the crate? (b) the change in momentum of the object;
(b) What is its momentum at the end of the first two seconds? (c) the change in velocity of the object;
(c) What is its velocity at the end of the first two seconds? (d) the final velocity of the object.
r r r
(a) The crate is initially at rest, ∴ pi = 0 . 1
(a) I = area = (6 + 10 )× + 20= + 160 Ns.
r 2
r r r r r
(b) I = ∆p , Fnet ∆t = p f − pi , + 20 × 2.0 = p f − 0 ,
r r
r
p f = + 40 kg ms-1. (b) ∆p = I = + 160 kg ms-1.
r r r r r
(c) p f = mv , + 40 = 50v , v = + 0.80 ms-1. r r r r r ∆p + 160 +
(c) ∆p = mv − mu = m∆v , ∴ ∆v = = = 50 ms-1.
m 3.2
r r r r r
Example 2 A club head hits a 50-g golf ball with an average (d) ∆v = v − u , + 50 = v − 0 , v = + 50 ms-1.
force of 500 N. The impact time is 10 ms. Determine
(a) Determine the impulse exerted on the ball.
(b) What is the resulting change in momentum of the ball?
(c) Find the velocity of the ball as it leaves the club head. Conservation of momentum
r r
( )
(a) I = Fnet ,av ∆t = + 500 × 10 × 10 −3 = + 5.0 Ns. The law of conservation of momentum states that for an
isolated system of particles, total momentum (vector sum of
r r momenta of all particles in the system) remains constant.
(b) ∆p = I = + 5.0 kg ms-1.
r r r r r r For example, in a collision of two objects A and B, total
(c) ∆p = mv − mu , + 5.0 = 0.050v − 0 , v = + 100 ms-1. momentum before collision, during collision and after
collision remains the same. This can be expressed as
Example 3 A 140-g baseball, in horizontal flight with a speed r r r r
m Au A + mB u B = m A v A + m B v B .
of 39 ms-1, is struck with a bat. After leaving the bat, the ball
travels in the opposite direction with the same speed. r r
(a) What impulse acts on the ball while it is in contact with the where u and v are the velocities before and after collision
bat? respectively.
(b) The impact time for the ball-bat collision is 1.2 ms. What r r r r
average force acts on the ball? uA uB vA vB
(c) What is the average acceleration of the ball?
r r r r r r
(
(a) I = ∆p = mv − mu = m(v − u ) = 0.14 − 39− + 39 ≈ − 11 Ns. ) mA mB mA mB
r r r Before After
( )
(b) I = Fnet ,av ∆t , − 11 ≈ Fnet ,av × 1.2 × 10 −3 ,
r
Fnet ,av ≈ − 9.2 × 10 3 N.
r
r Fnet ,av − 9.2 × 10 3 − Example 1 A bullet of mass 3.8 grams is fired horizontally
(c) a av = ≈ ≈ 6.5 × 10 4 ms-2. with a speed 1100 ms-1 into a 12-kg block of wood that is
m 0.14
initially at rest on a horizontal table. If the block is free to
slide without friction across the table, what speed will it have
Example 1 An object of mass 3.2 kg and initially at rest is acquired after it has absorbed the bullet?
acted on by a net eastward force which varies with time as
shown in the graph below. Before After
F (N)
20
r
Let v be the common velocity of the block with the bullet
embedded in it.
r r r r
m Au A + m B u B = m A v A + mB v B ,
r r
0.0038× + 1100 + 12 × 0 = 0.0038v + 12v ,
r
0 6 10 t (s) v ≈ + 0.35 . Speed ≈ 0.35 ms-1.
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Example 2 Calculate the recoil velocity of a 4.0-kg rifle that
shoots a 50-g bullet at a speed of 280 ms-1.
Before After
r r r
0 = 4.0v + 0.050× + 280 , v ≈ − 0.29 .
Recoil velocity ≈ 0.29 ms-1 backwards.
Before After
r r
0.010× + 400 + 2.0 × 0 = 0.010× + 350 + 2.0v , v = + 0.25 .
Speed = 0.25 ms-1.
Before After
r
v
-1
15 ms
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