RT 308: Computed Tomography
BSRT 53B | Sir Vaun Jason L. Salvador, RRT, MSRT
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
• TOMOS - greek latin word section of larger work
• RADON - Australian mathematician who probed
the possibility to reconstruct a 2D or 3D image
from large number of its projection from di erent
projection
2 TYPES OF CT SYSTEM
- Emission CT (nuclear medicine)
- Transmission CT (x-ray imaging)
EVOLUTION OF TERMS
British Journal of Radiology (1973)
- computerized transverse axial scanning
Radiological Society of North America -
Computed Tomography
- later accepted by the American Journal of
Roentgenology (widespread acceptance)
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PRELIMS
PEOPLE/EVENTS
Godfrey Newbold Houns eld
• Nottinghamshire, England
• Electronics and electrical and mechanical engineer
(1951) Joined the Electric and Musical Industries
(EMI Records) in Middlesex
• 1967 - began investigating pattern recognition and
reconstruction technique using computers
- 9 days of scanning
- 2.5 hours of reconstruction
• 1971 - rst clinical prototype CT brain scanner (EMI
mark 1)
- installed at Atkinson-Morley’s Hospital
- Dr. James Ambrose - conducted clinical
studies under his direction
- 20 minutes of scanning
- 4.5 minutes reconstruction after introduction
of micro computers
• 1972 - received the McRobert Award (akin to noble
prize in engineering
Allan MacLeod Cormack
• BS, Physics, MS Crystalography in Cape Town;
Nuclear Physics in Cambridge
• 1963 - 1964 - developed solution to the
mathematical problem in CT
• later shared with noble prize with Houns eld
Dr. Robert Ledly
• developed the rst whole-body CT scanner
 VOLUME (SPIRAL SCANNING) MULTISLICE
CT SCANNER SCANNER SPIRAL/HELICAL CT-SCANNER:
VOLUME SCANNING

FIRST-GENERATION SCANNER • Dr. Willi Kalender - introduced and developed

• one or two detectors volume spiral CT scanning
• 4 1/2 minute scan • 1989
• slip-ring technology - continuous 360° rotation
SECOND-GENERATION SCANNER • multiplanar reconstruction (MPR) options
• 30 or more detectors • multiple slices obtained simultaneously
• 40 slices in 10 minutes • 1989 - 1 slice per revolution
• 1992 - dual slice
THIRD-GENERATION SCANNER • 1997 / 1998 - four slice (MSCT)
• bank of up to 960 detectors • 2000 - 8, 16, 32, and 40
• detectors and x-ray tube rotate 360° • 2004 - 64 slice
• 2006 - dual source CT-scanner (256)
FOURTH-GENERATION SCANNER
• 2006 - dual source, 2 x-ray tube, 2 detectors
• up to 4800 or more detectors on a xed ring
• 2006 - 2007 - 256 slice (prototype) to 320 slice
• only x-ray tube rotates
• shorter scan times

COMPARISON OF SINGLE AND MULTISLICE

HIGH-SPEED CT-SCANNERS (1975)
SCANNERS

Dynamic Special Electron Beam

Reconstuctor Technology
- rst installed in Mayo - c a r d i o v a s c u l a r C T
Clinic scanner
- dynamic function of the - mid 1980s
organs cardiovascular - no motion artifact
and pulmonary system - Dr. Douglas Boyd
- acquired by siemens
medical system
(evolution)
- referred as EBCT
(electron beam CT)
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MULTISLICE CT TECHNOLOGY
• dual-focus x-ray tube with eight-element detector
array, resulting in 16 slices per rotation
NOTE: multislice CT technology continues to
advance rapidly. current scanner can produce 64 or
more slices per x-ray tube rotation.
DUAL SOURCE, DUAL ENERGY, SPECTRAL CT-
SCAN
• two di erent x-ray spectra are used to acquire two
image datasets of the same region, to allow the
analysis of energy-dependent changes in the
attenuation of di erent materials.
OTHER TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS OF VOLUME
CT
• CT uoroscopy
• CT angiography
• 3D imaging, virtual reality imaging, and;
• more recently improved cardiac imaging
In nuclear , the CT scanner is combined with
• positron emission tomography (PET) scanner and;
• single-photon emission tomography (SPECT) to
form single units referred to as a PET/CT scanner
and a SPECT/CT
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PORTABLE CT
• Philips Medical Systems introduced a mobile CT
scanner for patients ill or traumatized, allowing for
remote imaging in operating rooms, intensive care
units, and emergency trauma units. Other portable
CT scanners are available from neurological and
Samsung electronics.
CLINICAL EFFICACY STUDIES
• CT is e ective in diagnosing central nervous
system diseases, detecting disorders like gliomas,
metastases, and , providing accurate isodose
curves for radiation treatment planning, and
reducing cerebral angiography frequency.
RADIATION DOSE STUDIES
• The study measured cranial and gonadal radiation
doses for CT scans, revealing that the initial
radiation dose was negligible due to tightly
collimated beams, but patient exposure typically
exceeds lm radiography of the same area.
Ionization chambers or thermoluminescent
dosimeter
• Used methods to measure and describe doses and
describing it using single-scan dose pro les,
multiscan dose pro les, CT dose index, multiscan
average dose, and isodose curves.
QUALITY CONTROL
• CT scanners undergo quality control procedures
and tests to ensure optimal image quality and
minimize image artifacts. Various tests are
available, ranging from simple tests using
manufacturers' phantoms to complex ones
requiring expertise. The ACR has introduced the
ACR phantom, which consists of four sections that
can be imaged simultaneously for CT QC
programs.
OTHER USES
Internal Log Defect
• to distinguish them from good wood, and the low
density and rough texture of rotten areas to
separate rotten wood from sound wood.

Palenteology
• Study completely preserved mummies in Egypt
Poultry Meat Inspection
APPLICATIONS OF VOLUME SCANNING
• CT uoroscopy
• CT angiography
• 3D imaging, virtual reality imaging, recently
improved cardiac C
CT FLUOROSCOPY
• or continuous imaging, depends on spiral/helical
data acquisition methods, high-speed processing,
and a fast image-processing algorithm for image
reconstruction.
CT ANGIOGRAPHY
Is de ned as CT imaging of blood vessels opaci ed
by contrast media utilizes 3D imaging principles with
intravenous contrast injection to display vasculature
images, comparing favorably with intra-arterial
angiograms.
CT ENDOSCOPY: VIRTUAL REALITY IMAGING
Virtual reality, a computer science eld, allows users
to interact with 3D scenes, a technique used in virtual
endoscopy to create inner views of tubular
structures.
CARDIAC CT IMAGING
• Fast CT scanners like EBCT are used to image the
beating heart, reducing motion artifacts and spatial
and contrast resolution issues, resulting in accurate
diagnostic images.
MAJOR TECHNOLOGY TRENDS
ITERATIVE RECONSTRUCTION ALGORITHMS
Filtered back-projection
• aim to reduce image noise and higher radiation
dose in contrast to the FBP algorithm, addressing
issues like image noise and streak artifacts.
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DETECTOR TECHNOLOGIES
The detector, a crucial part of the CT system,
absorbs and converts attenuated radiation into
electrical signals, which are then digitized and sent to
the CT computer for image creation.
Two categories:
1. solid-state detectors (scintillation detectors)
2. gas-ionization detectors (xenon gas). Obsolete
RADIATION DOSE OPTIMIZATION
• The International Commission on Radiological
Protection advocates for the use of the ALARA
philosophy for radiation dose reduction in CT. This
involves balancing the need for maintaining
diagnostic quality images with the reduction of
radiation dose. The term "optimization" refers to
enhancing design and functionality.
SPECTRAL CT IMAGING
• Dual-energy CT utilizes the broad energy spectrum
from x-ray tubes to optimize visualization and
demonstration of structures in objects. Systems like
Dual-Source CT and fast-kVp switching CT are
used interchangeably.
DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
• DATA ACQUISITION - involves collecting patient
information, such as electron density and linear
attenuation coe cient, for imaging modalities like
projection digital radiography and CT, using x-ray
tubes and digital image detectors.
• IMAGE PROCESSING - Image processing involves
a digital computer processing an input image to
produce an output image using the binary number
system. This system operates uses binary digits or
bits, which are not continuous but discrete units.
• I M A G E D I S P L A Y, S T O R A G E , A N D
COMMUNICATION
 2 IMAGE REPRESENTATION
ANALOG IMAGES - Continuous light intensity
distributions on radiographs are formed when light is
focused on lm or x-rays are projected onto x-ray
lm, or through photoelectronic means.
DIGITAL IMAGES - Digital images are numerical
representations of objects created by converting
information into digital form using an ADC. The
computer processes the data, resulting in digital
images that can be displayed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIGITAL IMAGE
MATRIX - Digital images are composed of a 2D
matrix of numbers, with columns (M) and rows (N)
de ning pixel regions. The dimension of the image is
M, N, and its size is given by the relationship.
PIXELS - PICTURE ELEMENTS - The matrix
consists of square pixels with discrete brightness
levels representing the tissue characteristics being
imaged.
VOXELS - VOLUME ELEMENTS - Pixels in digital
images that represent tissue volume
BIT DEPTH - refers to the number of bits used to
represent the color of a single pixel in digital imaging.
A higher bit depth allows for a greater range of colors
and more accurate representation of shades
IMAGE DIGITIZATION
SCANNING - Digitization involves dividing a picture
into small regions, or scanning, each representing a
pixel, resulting in a grid with rows and columns.
SAMPLING - Image digitization involves sampling,
measuring pixel brightness, and transmitting light
onto transparency. A photomultiplier tube detects
transmitted light, producing an analog signal.
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QUANTIZATION - The nal step in image
processing
assigns brightness values to gray levels, creating a
range of gray levels called grayscale, based on bit
depth, allowing for various shades of gray.
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION - The ADC
converts analog signals to digital information by
sampling and quantizing the signal's strength at
di erent points, improving its representation.
two important characteristics
ACCURACY - refers to the process of capturing a
signal, with more samples leading to a more accurate
representation of the digital image.
ALIASING - Insu cient samples can lead to aliasing,
an inaccurate representation of the original signal,
appearing as Moiré patterns on the image after
computer processing.
WHY DIGITIZE IMAGES?
• Image enhancement
• Image restoration
• Image analysis
• Image compression
• Image synthesis
IMAGE-PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
• Point operations (point processes),
• Local operations (area processes), and;
• Global operations (frame processes).
POINT OPERATIONS
• Point operations are a common image-processing
technique that maps input image pixel values to
output image pixel values, scanning the input
matrix pixel by pixel.
• Gray-level mapping / contrast enhancement/
contrast stretching/ histogram modi cation/
histogram stretching, or “windowing.”
• Gray-level mapping, a process that alters the
brightness of an image by plotting output and input
 gray levels, can be achieved using either hardware
or software.
LOCAL OPERATIONS
• Local operations are image-processing operations
that determine the output image pixel value from a
small area around the input pixel, also known as
area processes or group processes.
SPATIAL FREQUENCY PROCESSING: UNSHARP
(BLURRED) MASKING
• Unsharp masking is a digital image-processing
technique that removes blurred images from low-
pass ltering to create a sharper output image.

• Spatial Location Filtering: Convolution

• Spatial Frequency Filtering: High-Pass Filtering
• Spatial Frequency Filtering: Low-Pass Filtering
• Spatial Frequency Processing: Unsharp (Blurred)
Masking

SPATIAL LOCATION FILTERING: CONVOLUTION

GLOBAL OPERATIONS
• Convolution, a general-purpose algorithm, is a
• Global operations, such as Fourier domain
technique of ltering in the space domain,
processing, use the entire input image to compute
• the output pixel value is determined by calculating
pixel values, o ering edge enhancement, image
the weighted average of input and surrounding
sharpening, and image restoration.
pixels using a convolution kernel, typically a 3x3
matrix, requiring nine multiplications and additions.
GEOMETRIC OPERATIONS
• modify the spatial position or orientation of pixels
SPATIAL FREQUENCY: HIGH-PASS FILTERING
in images, resulting in scaling, sizing, rotation, and
• also known as edge enhancement or sharpness, translation, rather than a ecting the intensity of
converts a blurred spatial input image into spatial the pixels.
frequencies, then uses a high-pass lter to
suppress low frequencies.
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF CT SCAN

DATA ACQUISITION
• refers to the systematic collection of information
from the patient to produce CT image.

SPATIAL FREQUENCY FILTERING: LOW-PASS

FILTERING
• Low-pass ltering reduces noise and brightness in
an image by smoothing it with a low-pass lter,
resulting in blurred output but compromising image
detail.
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 two methods:

SLICE-BY-SLICE DATA ACQUISITION

x-ray tube rotates around the patient and collects
data from the rst slice. The tube stops, and the
patient moves into position to scan the next slice.
This process continues until all slices have been
individually scanned.

VOLUME DATA ACQUISITION

a special beam geometry referred to as spiral or
helical geometry is used to scan a volume of tissue
rather than one slice at a time. In spiral/helical CT, the
x-ray tube rotates around the patient and traces a
spiral/helical path to scan an entire volume of tissue
while the patient holds a single breath.
WINDOWING
the range of numbers is referred to as the window
width (WW), and the center of the range is the
window level (WL) or window center (C). Both the
WW and WL are located on the control console.

DATA PROCESSING
raw data eld of view - a matrix is placed over the scan FOV
image reconstruction during data collection and image reconstruction,
chosen by the technologist before CT examination,
based on the anatomy being studied.

CT numbers
• CT numbers are established relative to water
FORMAT OF THE CT IMAGE
attenuation, with water numbers always 0, bone
• the original clinical CT images were composed of
and air numbers +1000 and -1000 respectively.
an 80x80 matrix for a total of 6400 pixels
• each pixel in the reconstructed image is assigned a
• the reconstruction circle, also known as eld of
CT number
view (FOV), is a circular area from which the
• CT numbers are established relative to water
transmission measurements are taken during
attenuation, with water numbers always 0, bone
scanning and is chosen by the technologist.
and air numbers +1000 and -1000 respectively.
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ADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS
• o ers best low-contrast resolution
• can manipulate the WW and WL
• spiral/helical volumetric CT leads to major
a d v a n c e m e n t s : 3 D , C T u o ro s c o p y, C T
angiography, multi-planar imaging
• high spatial resolution and be coupled with SPECT
and PET scanners
• digital imaging processing
• can now routinely produce 3D
• high spatial resolution is notable poorer
• generally higher radiation dose
• lost of soft tissue data due to large amount of bone
in the surrounding area
• presence of metallic object may cause streak
artifacts
BASIC SCHEME FOR DATA ACQUISITION
1. the x-ray tube and detector are in perfect
alignment
2. the tube and detector scan the patient to collect a
large number of transmission measurements
3. the beam is collimated to pass through only the
slice of interest.
4. the beam is collimated to pass through only the
slice of interest.
5. the beam is attenuated by the patient and the
transmitted photons are then measured by the
detector
6. the detector converts the x-ray photons into an
electrical signal (analog data)
7. these signals are converted by the analog-to-
digital converter (ADC) into digital data
8. the digital data are sent to the computer for
image reconstruction
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DATA ACQUISITION GEOMETRIES
FIRST-GENERATION SCANNERS (1973)
• Houns eld (1973) introduced parallel beam
geometry.
• rst EMI brain scanner
• data acquisition follows the translate-rotate
principle with a highly collimated x-ray beam.
• rectilinear pencil beam scanning
• tube and detector translate, rotate by 1 degree, and
repeat for 180 degrees.
• 4.5 to 5.5 minutes Image reconstruction
SECOND-GENERATION SCANNERS
(rectilinear multiple pencil beam scanning)
• translate-rotate principle with di erences from rst-
generation.
• linear detector array (about 30 detectors) coupled to
x-ray tube.
• fan beam geometry - small fan with divergent rays.
• new Image reconstruction algorithm
• translation and rotation for 180 degrees,
semicircular path.
• larger rotational increments and increased
detectors lead to shorter scan times (20 seconds to
3.5 minutes).
• scan time inversely proportional to the number of
detectors; more detectors result in shorter total
scan time.
THIRD-GENERATION SCANNERS
• fan beam geometry rotating continuously (360
degrees).
• x-ray tube coupled to a curved detector array (30 to
40 degrees arc) for image acquisition
• continuously rotating fan beam scanning
• path traced by the tube forms a circle,
distinguishing it from earlier CT scanner
generations
• Faster data collection (within a few seconds) in
• third-generation scanners.
• reduced scan time.
• reduction in artifacts caused by respiratory motion
FOURTH GENERATION
• rotating fan beam within a circular detector array
• rotating fan beam outside a nutating detector ring
FOURTH GENERATION: ROTATING FAN BEAM
WITHIN A CIRCULAR DETECTOR ARRAY
• x-ray tube positioned within a stationary, circular
detector array
• wide fan beam geometry with the apex originating
at each detector
• single rays sequentially strike the detector as the
tube moves within the circle
• very short scan times varying between scanners,
dependent on the manufacturer.
• circular path
• fan beam geometry image reconstruction algorithm
• x-ray tube rotates outside the detector ring
• detector ring tilts during rotation, allowing the fan
beam to strike detectors at the far side of the x-ray
tube.
• detectors closest to the x-ray tube move out of the
path of the x-ray beam during the tilting action
• nutating describes the tilting action of the detector
ring during data collection
• scanners with this scanning motion eliminate poor
geometry seen in other schemes where the tube
rotates inside its detector ring near the object.
• nutate-rotate systems are not currently
manufactured
MULTISLICE CT SCANNERS: CT SCANNING IN
SPIRAL-HELICAL GEOMETRY
• recent development in CT data acquisition
• continuous rotation scanners, also known as
volume scanners, collect data in volumes rather than
individual slices
• slip-ring technology is utilized to allow continuous
rotation of the gantry.
• x-ray tube path in spiral/helical geometry describes
a spiral or helix during scanning.
terms:
• spiral geometry (Siemens)
• helical geometry (Toshiba)
• patient is transported through the gantry aperture
during the scanning process
• volume CT is a term used to describe the scanning
of a patient volume during a single breath-hold.
• motivated by the need for faster scan times and
improvements in 3D
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• evolution of spiral/helical geometry scanners from
two to eight slices per revolution to 16, 32, 40, 64,
and 320 slices per 360-degree rotation.
• prototype scanner in 2007 with 256 slices per 360-
degree rotation, developed by Toshiba Medical
Systems for imaging moving structures like the
heart and lungs.
• unique feature: covers the entire heart in a single
rotation
• lessons learned from this prototype led to the
development of the Aquilion family of CT scanners,
including the popular Aquilion ONE and Aquilion
PRIME scanners with 320 slices per revolution. –
now Cannon
• 16 or more slices per 360-degree rotation Cone-
beam algorithm
FIFTH GENERATION: ELECTRON-BEAM CT
( E B C T ) A N D D Y N A M I C S PAT I A L
RECONSTRUCTOR (DSR)
• classi ed as high-speed CT scanners acquiring
data in milliseconds.
•fan beam of x-rays produced by an electron beam.
scanning tungsten target rings
• designed for high-resolution imaging of moving
organs (e.g., heart) with minimal motion artifacts.
• no x-ray tube, X-rays produced when the electron
beam collides with tungsten target.
ELECTRON-BEAM CT (EBCT):
EBCT scanner lacks moving physical parts and is
primarily suited for high-speed imaging of moving
organs.
limitations of EBCT:
EBCT principle considered inadequate for state-of-
the-art cardiac imaging or general radiology
applications
SIXTH-GENERATION SCANNERS: THE DUAL-
SOURCE CT SCANNER
MSCT Scanners' Overall Goal:
- improve volume coverage speed.
- provide enhanced spatial and temporal resolution
compared to older four-slice scanners.

64-Slice Volume Scanners:
- o er better spatial and temporal resolution
- Encounter challenges in handling artifacts in CT
angiography (CTA) and addressing mechanical
forces during attempts to reduce rotation time.
Introduction of DSCT scanner:
• consists of two x-ray tubes and two sets of
detectors o set by 90 degrees
• speci cally designed for cardiac CT imaging.
• provides the necessary temporal resolution to
image moving structures like the heart.
• represents a new generation of scanners aimed at
solving problems related to artifacts and mechanical
forces in CT angiography.
SEVENTH-GENERATION SCANNERS: FLAT-PANEL
CT SCANNERS
Flat-Panel Digital Detectors in CT:
• similar to those used in digital radiography.
• currently in prototype development for CT; not yet
available for clinical imaging.
• consideration for categorization as seventh-
generation CT scanners.
Flat-Panel CT Scanner Prototype:
• x-ray tube and detectors are coupled and
positioned in the CT gantry.
• detector includes cesium iodide (CsI) scintillator
coupled to an amorphous silicon thin- lm transistor
array.
• at-panel detectors provide excellent spatial
resolution but lack good contrast resolution.
SLIP-RING TECHNOLOGY
Spiral-Helical CT and Slip-Ring Technology:
• Enables continuous gantry rotation, a key
component of spiral-helical CT.
• Slip rings are electromechanical devices with
circular conductive rings and brushes transmitting
electrical energy across a rotating interface.
• CT scanners with slip-ring design are referred to as
continuous rotation, volume CT, or slip- ring
scanners.
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De nition of Slip Rings:
• "Electromechanical devices consisting of circular
electrical conductive rings and brushes that
transmit electrical energy across a rotating
interface”
History of Slip-Ring Technology in CT:
• slip-ring technology is not a new concept and has
been utilized in CT scanners.
• for example, the Varian V-360-3 CT scanner, an
older model, employed slip- ring design for
continuous gantry rotation.
Advantages of Slip-Ring Technology:
• facilitates very fast data collection, crucial for
dynamic CT scanning and CT angiography (CTA).
• provides electrical power for x-ray tube operation
and transfers signals from detectors.
DESIGN AND POWER SUPPLY
Slip-Ring Designs:
• Two designs: disk or pancake type and cylinder.
• Disk design has concentric circles in the plane of
rotation.
• Cylinder design has conductive rings along the axis
forming a cylinder
• Brushes transmitting electrical power glide in
contact grooves on the stationary slip ring.
Contactless Slip Ring:
• Latest advance in slip-ring design Enables transfer
of electrical energy across a rotating interface
without using electrical contacts
Advantages of Slip-Ring Scanners:
• Provide continuous gantry rotation by eliminating
long high-tension cables to the x-ray tube.
• Eliminate the need for unwinding cables after
complete rotation.
Advantages of Slip-Ring Scanners:
• Provide continuous gantry rotation by eliminating
long high-tension cables to the x-ray tube.
• Eliminate the need for unwinding cables after a
complete rotation.
Gantry Location of High-Voltage Generators:
• In slip-ring scanners, high-voltage generators are
located in the gantry.
• In conventional start-stop scanners, cables
originate from the high-voltage generator, usually
located in the x-ray room.
Power Supply Variation in Slip-Ring Scanners:
• Scanners have either low-voltage or high-voltage
slip
LOW-VOLTAGE SLIP RING SYSTEM
• Signals transmitted to slip rings via low-voltage
brushes.
• Brushes glide in contact grooves on the stationary
slip ring.
• Slip ring supplies power to the high-voltage
transformer High-voltage transformer then
transmits high voltage to the x-ray tube.
HIGH-VOLTAGE SLIP RING SYSTEM
• Delivers power to the high-voltage generator
• High-voltage generator supplies high voltage to the
slip ring.
• Slip ring transfers high voltage to the x-ray tube.
• High-voltage generator does not rotate with the x-
ray tube in this system.
ADVANTAGES OF SLIP-RING TECHNOLOGY
• faster scan times and minimal interscan delays
• capacity for continuous acquisition protocols
• elimination of the start-stop process characteristic
of conventional CT scanners
• removal of the cable wraparound process
X-RAY SYSTEM
X-RAY GENERATOR
• CT scanners use three-phase power for e cient x-
ray production
• These generators, located inside the CT gantry,
convert low-voltage current, to high-frequency
current
X-RAY TUBES
x-ray tube components:
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• disk-shaped rotating anode Rhenium, tungsten, and
molybdenum (RTM) alloy
• small target angle (usually 12 degrees)
• high rotation speed (3600 to 10,000 rpm).
• ceramic insulators for electrical isolation.
STRATON X-RAY TUBE FEATURES
• introduced for use with MSCT scanners.
• designed by Siemens Medical Solutions.
• addresses heat dissipation and slow cooling rates.
• Compact design for fast gantry rotation (0.37
seconds)
• high cooling rates
• enables high-speed volume scanning with high
milliamperes and long exposure times
FILTRATION
CT Beam Filtration: Initial CT experiments used
monochromatic radiation, but clinical CT employs
polychromatic beams.
Filtration serves a dual purpose in CT:
Removal of long-wavelength x rays:
- don't contribute to CT image formation but
increase patient dose.
Shaping the energy distribution:
- uniform beam hardening when x rays pass
through lters and the object.
COLLIMATION
- removal of long-wavelength x-rays,
Beam Hardening:
• Results in increased penetration due to di erences
in attenuation.
• Solved by introducing additional ltration into the
beam.
Shaped Filters (e.g., "Bowtie" Filter):
• Positioned between the x-ray tube and the patient.
• Made of Te on, low atomic number, high density.
• Compensate for beam path length di erences,
ensuring more uniform uence to the detector
• reduce dynamic range of electronics for improved
image quality
 CT DETECTOR TECHNOLOGY THE STELLAR DETECTOR
• Ability to capture, absorb, and convert x-ray • Siemens Healthcare Stellar Detector
photons to electrical signals. • First third-generation CT detectors
• High capture, absorption, and conversion e ciency • nanotechnology for electronics miniaturization, fully
are essential. integrating them into the photodiode through
• Capture e ciency in uenced by detector area and Siemens TrueSignal Technology
distance between detectors.
• Absorption e ciency depends on atomic number, NANOPANEL PRISM DETECTOR
density, size, and thickness of the detector face. • dual-layer detector by Philips Healthcare
• Rooted in a 1978 proposal by Brooks and Di Chiro.
Require frequent calibrations. • Designed for spectral CT imaging, it features a 3D
• In uenced by detector element size, focal spot tile-patterned arrangement.
size, and sampling size (detector pitch). • E cient photon conversion, geometric e ciency,
dynamic range, stability, linearity, uniformity, and low
GAS-IONIZATION DETECTORS noise.
• Third-generation CT scanners, consist of gas • Developed based on Philips Healthcare
chambers with tungsten plates researchers' work, it absorbs both low- and high-
• Ionization of xenon gas occurs upon exposure to x- energy x-rays for optimal CT imaging.
rays, generating a signal current proportional to
absorbed photons. DETECTOR-BASED SPECTRAL CT
• Quantum detection e ciency is lower (50%-60%) • Dual-energy methods in CT include DSCT by
compared to solid-state detectors. Siemens Healthcare (dual source) and Fast-kV
• Not utilized in MSCT scanners with multirow switching CT by GE Healthcare (fast kV switching)
detector arrays, as these scanners typically opt for • DSCT and Fast-kV switching CT represent primary
third-generation beam geometry and solid-state methods for spectral information extraction.
detector arrays
DETECTOR-BASED SPECTRAL CT
SCINTILLATION DETECTORS • Two main approaches to dual-energy
• Solid-state detectors consisting of scintillation CT: Energy Weighting, requiring a photon-counting
crystal coupled to a photodiode tube. e n e r g y - r e s o l v i n g d e t e c t o r, a n d M a t e r i a l
• X-rays produce scintillations ( ashes of light) in the Decomposition, characterizing materials based on
crystal. energy-dependent linear attenuation coe cients.
• Light directed to a photomultiplier (PM) tube for
signal conversion.
• Light from the crystal strikes the photocathode of MULTIROW/MULTISLICE DETECTORS
the PM tube, releasing electrons.
• Electrons cascade through dynodes, resulting in a DUAL-ROW/ DUAL-SLICE DETECTORS (1992)
small output signal. • Introduced the rst dual-slice volume CT scanner
• Single crystals and polycrystalline • Featuring a dual-row, solid-state detector array and
ceramics commonly used. a special x-ray tube with a double-dynamic focus
• Scintillation materials include cadmium tungstate system.
(CdWO4) and rare earth oxides. • The Twin-Beam Technology allows simultaneous
• GE Gemstone, a garnet scintillator, introduced for scanning of two contiguous slices, e ectively
use in CT by GE Healthcare. doubling fan beam ray density and detector
• Photodiode - often made of silicon, converts light sampling twice for improved resolution.
to current as fast as 0.5 to 250 nanoseconds
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 Z-SHARP TECHNOLOGY
• A recent innovation, the z- ying focal spot
technique (z-Sharp technology), utilizes the Straton
x-ray tube to achieve double sampling with
overlapping slices during a 360-degree rotation.
The Siemens Somatom 64 CT scanner, for
instance, provides 64 slices for a 32 × 0.6 mm
detector array, resulting in enhanced image
sharpness compared to traditional sampling
techniques.

MULTIROW/MULTISLICE DETECTORS
• Increase volume coverage speed performance of
single-slice and dual-slice CT scanners.
• consists of one detector with rows of detector
elements.
• Ranges from 4 to 64 to 320 slices per 360-degree
rotation.
• Detector design can in uence the thickness of the
slices.

AREA DETECTORS IN CT IMAGING

256-Slice CT Prototype (Toshiba Aquilion):

- Wide area multirow array detector.
- Enables scanning larger volumes, e.g., the entire
heart in a single rotation.

• Flat-Panel Detectors:
- Similar to those used in digital radiography.

• Prototypes:
- Developed and evaluated for CT imaging for breast
CT.
- Several prototypes undergoing clinical testing.
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