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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

 CT is so remarkable that in many cases it generates a

dramatic increase in diagnostic information compared to
what is obtained in conventional x-ray techniques.
 This invention was made possible through the work of
several individuals, most notably Godfrey Newbold
Hounsfield and Allan Macleod Cormack.

MILESTONES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY

1917
 Johann Karl August Radon 1940
 It is possible to reconstruct or build up an image of two-  Gabriel Frank
or three-dimensional object from a large number of  Described the basic idea of today’s tomography.
projections from different directions.  The patent includes drawings of equipment to form
sinograms (representations of measurement data as linear
1920’S samples versus view samples) and optical back projection
 Methods to images specific body layers or sections of the techniques to reconstruct images.
body were under development.
 At that time, terms such as “body section radiography”
and “stratigraphy” from stratum which means layer) were
used to describe the technique.

1935
 Grossman
 redefined the technique and labelled it, “tomography”
(Greek tomos, meaning “section”)
 A conventional tomogram is an image of a section of the
patient that is oriented parallel to the film.

1960
 William Oldendorf
1937
 An American neurologist from Los Angeles, performed a
 Watson
series of experiments based on principles similar to those
 Developed another tomographic technique in which the
later used in CT.
sections were transverse sections (cross-sections) and
 The objective of his work was to determine whether
referred to as transverse axial tomography.
internal structures within dense structures could be
identified by transmission measurements.
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1975
 Dynamic Spatial Reconstructor (DSR), with the goals to
carry out dynamic volumes scanning to accommodate
imaging the dynamics of organ system with high temporal
resolution

1963
 David E. Kuhl and Roy Q. Edwards
 Transverse Tomography using Radioisotopes was further
developed and evolved into today’s emission computed
tomography

1979
 Hounsfield shared the Nobel Prize in in medicine and
physiology with Allan Macleod Cormack
1963
 Allan Macleod Cormack 1980
 He derived a mathematical theory for image  Boyd’s Electron Beam Computed Tomography (EBCT)
reconstruction.
 Cormack also applied reconstruction techniques in
nuclear medicine.

1967
 Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield
 The development of the first clinical CT scanner began in
1967 at the Central Research Laboratories of EMI, Ltd. in
England
 “if an x-ray beam were passed through an object from all
directions and measurements were made of all the x-ray
transmission, information about the internal structures of

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF CT
1. Study of internal Log defects in sawmill. Funt and
1971 Bryan (1987)
 Dr. James Ambrose
 A consultant at Atkinson-Morley’s Hospital.
 Together with Hounsfield, they have obtained readings
from a specimen of Human Brain.

1971
 Dr. Robert Ledley
 A professor of radiology, physiology, and biophysics at
Georgetown University, developed the first whole-body
CT scanner
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5. Fat stock breeding

2. Paleoanthropology

6. Animal investigation

3. Baggage inspection at airports

7. Evaluate bowed stringed instruments (Sirr and

Waddle (1999).

4. Oil Exploration
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CT SYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENTS

HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR
 Generators produce high voltage and transmit it to the x-
ray tube.
 High kV is used to increase the intensity of the beam,
increasing its penetrating ability and thereby reducing
patient dose.
 High kV settings also help to reduce the heat load on the
x-ray tube by allowing a lower mA setting.
Filtration
 Compensating filters are used to shape the x-ray beam.
They reduce the radiation dose to the patient and help to
minimize image artifact.
 In addition, creating a more uniform beam intensity
improves the CT image by reducing artifacts that result
from beam hardening.
 Filtering the x-ray beam helps to reduce the radiation dose
to the patient and improves image quality.

GANTRY
 A mounted framework that surrounds the patient in
vertical plane
 It contains rotating scan frame onto which x-ray
generator, x-ray tube, slip-rings, high tension generator,
collimators, detectors and DAS.

Slip ring
 Slip rings use a brushlike apparatus to provide continuous
electrical power and electronic communication across a
rotating surface.
 They permit the gantry frame to rotate continuously,
eliminating the need to straighten twisted system cables.

COOLING SYSTEMS
 They can take different forms, such as blowers, filters, or
devices that perform oil-to-air heat exchange.
 Cooling mechanisms are important because many
imaging components can be affected by temperature
fluctuation.
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X-RAY TUBE
 X-ray tubes produce the x-ray photons that create the CT
image.
 Tungsten, with an atomic number of 74, is often used for
the anode target material because it produces a higher-
intensity x-ray beam.
 A CT tube must be designed to handle such stress. The
way a tube dissipates the heat that is created during x-ray
production is critical

Collimation
 Collimators restrict the x-ray beam to a specific area,
thereby reducing scatter radiation.
 Scatter radiation reduces image quality and increases the
radiation dose to the patient.
 Reducing the scatter improves contrast resolution and
decreases patient dose.
 Collimators control the slice thickness by narrowing or
widening the x-ray beam.
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DETECTOR  Solid-state detectors are also called scintillation detectors

 Captures the radiation beam from the patient and convert because they use a crystal that fluoresces when struck by
it into electrical signals, which are subsequently converted an x-ray photon
into binary coded information.
 There are two types of Radiation detector according the
materials used.
a. Xenon Gas
b. Solid-state

A brief comparison between xenon gas and solid-state detector

Xenon Gas Detector

 Xenon gas is used because of its ability to remain stable
under pressure
 A xenon detector channel consists of three tungsten
plates. When a photon enters the channel, it ionizes the
xenon gas
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER
 The data-acquisition system, or DAS, measures the
number of photons that strikes the detector, converts the
information to a digital signal, and sends the signal to the
computer

COMPUTER
 A modern computer is a high-speed electronic
computational machine that accepts information in the
form of data and instructions through some input devices
and processes this arithmetic and logic operations from a
program stored in its memory and later on displayed,
stored and recorded.
Solid State Detector
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERTER
 Converts digital/ binary data to analog data.
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DISPLAY DEVICE
 These are device which presents the data in a visual
manner wherein images are already available for viewing.

PROCESS OF OBTAINING IMAGES IN COMPUTED

TOMOGRAPHY
RECORDING DEVICE  DATA ACQUISITION
 Images are usually recorded in x-ray films because of its  IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION
wider gray scale.
 IMAGE DISPLAY, MANIPULATION, STORAGE,
RECORDING, COMMUNICATION
STORAGE DEVICE
 Images can be stored in devices such as magnetic tapes DATA ACQUISITION
and magnetic disks.
 Refers to the collection of x-ray transmission
measurements from the patient.
PATIENT TABLE
 Once x-rays have passed through the patient, they fall
 The patient lies on the table (or couch, as it is referred to
onto special detectors that measure the transmission
by some manufacturers) and is moved within the gantry
values, or attenuation values.
for scanning.
 The process of moving the table by a specified measure is
most commonly called incrementation, but is also referred
to as feed, step, or index.

IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION
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 After enough transmission measurements have been

collected by detectors, they are sent to the computer
processing.
 Computers use special mathematical techniques to
reconstruct the CT image in a finite number of steps
called reconstruction algorithms.

IMAGE RECORDING
 Images can be recorded and subsequently stored in some
form of archive.
 Images are usually recorded in x-ray films because of its
wider gray scale.
 Such recording is accomplished by multiformat video
cameras and laser cameras.
IMAGES DISPLAY
IMAGE COMMUNICATION
 It is usually on a cathode ray tube.
 In CT, it refers to electronic transmission of text data and
 Display monitors are mounted onto control consoles that
images from CT scanner to other devices
allow the technologist and radiologist to manipulate, store
and record images.

IMAGE MANIPULATION
 A distinct characteristic of CT aided by, now-a-days, may
computer software.
 Image can be modified through image manipulation to
make them more useful to the observer.
 Images can be subjected into other image processing
operation such as image smoothing, edge enhancement,
gray-scale manipulation, and three-dimensional
processing.

IMAGE STORAGE
 Images can be stored on magnetic tapes and magnetic
disks.
 In optical storage, the stored data are read by optical
means such as laser beam. In this case, storage is referred
to as laser storage. It may include: disks, tapes and cards.

HOW CT
SCANNER
WORKS
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 The technologist first turns on the scanner’s power and

performs a quick test to ensure the scanner is in good
working order
 The patient is in place in the scanner opening, with
appropriate positioning for the particular examination
 The technologist sets up the technical factors at the
control console. The scanning can now begin.
 When x-rays pass through the patient, they are attenuated
and subsequent measured by the detectors.
 The x-ray tube and detectors, inside the gantry, rotates
around the patient.
 The detectors converts the x-ray photons into electrical/
analog signals which will be converted to digital data.
 The computer then performs the image reconstruction
process.
 The reconstructed image is in numeric form and must be
converted into electrical signals and which enables us to
view the images in a monitor.
 Images can now be stored and recorded.

Historical Perspective of Computer

COMPUTERS HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1642
BLAISE PASCAL
 He developed the arithmetic machine (Pascaline
Calculator)
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1937
1694 HOWARD AIKEN
GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ  HARVARD MARK 1, a large electromechanical
 He developed a calculating machine to solve calculator
multiplication and division problems (Step Reckoner)

1944
PRESPER ECKERT
1822  He designed the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
CHARLES BABBAGE Calculator (ENIAC)
 He invented the difference engine to calculate
mathematical tables.

1944
JOHN MAUCHLY
 Together with Presper Eckert they invented the Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).

1890
HERMAN HOLLERITH
 He introduced the first electronic tabulator based on 1951
punch card operation.
 The UNIVERSAL AUTOMATIC COMPUTER
(UNIVAC) became the first commercially available
computer
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 Requires less power for operation

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

First-generation computers (1951-1958)

 Uses vacuum tubes for memory.
 Punch cards and magnetic tape are used as input-output
media
 These machines were large and slow and required air-
conditioned environment

Third-generation computers (1963-1970)

 Introduction of the integrated circuit etched onto silicon
chips.
 Magnetic disks were used for storage.
 Smaller and performs with greater speed
 Can perform multiprocessing

Second-generation computers (1959-1963)

 Used solid-state devices such as transistors and magnetic
cores for internal memory.
 Smaller and more reliable
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Fourth-generation computers (1971-1987)

 Based on a large-scale integration in which thousands of CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
integrated circuits were set on a chip. Computers are classified according to their:
 Microprocessors were introduced. 1. Processing capabilities
2. Storage capacity
3. Size
4. Cost.

Supercomputers
 They are used in oil-exploration studies, weather
forecasts, research, and scientific modeling

Fifth-generation computers (1987- present)
 Gallium-arsenide based circuitry.
 They are based on parallel processing
 Greater speed on processing that fourth-generation
computers.
Mainframe Computers
 They have large primary memories and can support many
pieces of peripheral equipment. Organizations such as
banks, universities and colleges, large businesses and
governments uses this type of computer.

Minicomputers
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 They are most commonly used in computed tomography DEFINITION OF COMPUTER

and magnetic resonance imaging.
Microcomputers
 Can be built with all circuitry on a single chip or on
multiple circuit boards. Its central feature is a
microprocessor.
 An electronic machine that can store and work with large
amount of information.
 A programmable usually electronic device that can store,
retrieve, and process data. (Oxford languages dictionary)
 A computer is a device that accepts information (in the
form of digitalized data) and manipulates it for some
result based on a program, software, or sequence of
instructions on how the data is to be processed.
(TechTarget Contributor)
 Computers are an integral part of many activities within a
Radiology Department. It is used fundamentally by
different radiology modalities to acquire, process and post
process imaging data. (I.K. Indrajit)
PROCESS OF OBTAINING IMAGES IN CT
 Data acquisition
 Image reconstruction
 Image display, manipulation, storage, recording and
communication

DATA ACQUISITION
 Refers to the collection of x-ray transmission
measurements from the patient.
 Once x-rays have passed through the patient, , they fall
onto special detectors that measure the transmission
values, or attenuation values.
DIGITAL FUNDAMENTALS
The two types of computers are DIGITAL AND ANALOG.

IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION
 After enough transmission measurements have been
collected by detectors, they are sent to the computer
processing.
 Computers use special mathematical techniques to
reconstruct the CT image in a finite number of steps
called reconstruction algorithms.
COMPUTERS
Principles of Computer Systems Applied in Computed
Tomography
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IMAGE STORAGE
 Images can be stored on magnetic tapes and magnetic
disks.
 In optical storage, the stored data are read by optical
means such as laser beam. In this case, storage is referred
to as laser storage. It may include: disks, tapes and cards.

IMAGE DISPLAY
 It is usually on a cathode ray tube.
 Display monitors are mounted onto control consoles that
allow the technologist and radiologist to manipulate, store
and record images.

IMAGE RECORDING
 Images can be recorded and subsequently stored in some
form of archive.
 Images are usually recorded in x-ray films because of its
wider gray scale.
 Such recording is accomplished by multiformat video
cameras and laser cameras.

IMAGE MANIPULATION
 A distinct characteristic of CT aided by, now-a-days, may
computer software.
 image can be modified through image manipulation to
make them more useful to the observer.
 Images can be subjected into other image processing
operation such as image smoothing, edge enhancement,
gray-scale manipulation, and three-dimensional
processing.

IMAGE COMMUNICATION
 In CT, it refers to electronic transmission of text data and
images from CT scanner to other devices
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THREE ELEMENTS IN COMPUTER SYSTEM 1. Stores the information entered into the computer for
1. SOFTWARE- refers to instruction that makes the processing
hardware work to solve problems 2. Stores the program that provides the instructions for
2. HARDWARE- refers to the physical components of processing the input information
the machine 3. Stores the result of processing
3. COMPUTER USER- people, who are essential to
computers and has the capability to design, develop, *it is available in chips
and operate hardware and software *this type of memory is volatile

COMPONENTS OF HARDWARE

INPUT DEVICE
 Input information to a computer
 Allows us to give command to computer system
Two Categories:
a. Keyboard devices
b. Non-keyboard devices
OUTPUT DEVICE
 An output device is a piece of a computer hardware that
receives data from computer and then translates that data
into another form. That form a may be audio, visual,
textual, or hard copy such as a printed document.
(Turbofuture)

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

 It is the brain of the computer.
 Performs basic operations of the system, that exchanges
data with the system’s memory and that manages the
system’s other component.
EXTERNAL MEMORY
 Includes magnetic tapes and disks and optical disks
 It is nonvolatile
 Storage capacity is determined by the number of bytes the
device can hold.
 External memory, also called "secondary memory" refers
to storage device that can retain or store data
persistently,m
 They could be embedded removable storage devices.
Examples include hard disk or solid state drives, USB
flash drives, and compact discs. (ATP)

INTERNAL MEMORY
2 Types:
1. Read-only memory (ROM)
2. Random-access memory (RAM)

Functions:
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SOFTWARE CONCEPTS
 The hardware receives its instructions from the software.
The instructions are written in steps that specify the way
to solve problem.
 These sets of instructions are called programs.
 Software is a set of programs, which is designed to
perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence
of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

Two types of software

 System Software
 Application Software
 Software Development Tool

SYSTEM SOFTWARE (TUTORIALSPOINT)

 The system software is a collection of programs designed
to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities
of the computer itself.
HARDWARE ORGANIZATION
 System software is generally prepared by the computer
 A computer processes the data or information it receives
manufacturers.
from people or other computers and outputs the results in
 These software products comprise of programs written in
a form suitable to the need of the user.
low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a
very basic level.
 System software serves as the interface between the
hardware and the end users.
 Some examples of system software are Operating System,
Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 Programs and data that comprise and relate to the
OPERATING SYSTEM (0S).
 An 0S is a program that controls the allocation and usage
of computer hardware resources.

There are 4 types of system software:

1. bootstrap loader
2. Diagnostic routines
3. Input-output system programs
4. 0S

APPLICATION SOFTWARE (TUTORIALS POINT)

 Application software products are designed to satisfy a
particular need of a particular environment.
 All software applications prepared in the computer lab
can come under the category of Application software.
 Application software may consist of a single program,
such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a
simple text.
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 It may also consist of a collection of programs, often

called a software package, which work together to
accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
 Refers to the programs developed to perform specific
types of work such as:
1. Creations of text and images
2. Manipulation of words and numbers
3. communication of information

GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF SOFTWARE

 Word processing
 Spreadsheets
 Graphics
 Database management
 Communications
*if all this programs are available in one package, it is referred
to as INTEGRATED SOFTWARE
INTERNET
 It is the largest computer network system in existence
because it connects users all over the world.
SOFTWARE INTERFACING
 An interface is the point at which connection is made
between two elements so they can work together.

Three types of software interface:

1. There are Command-driven - requires the users to
type commands to initiate the operation of the
system.
2. Menu-driven -allows the users to select commands
from displayed menu lists.
3. Graphic - allows the users to select commands by
choosing pictorial representations.
COMPUTERS IN RADIOLOGY

COMPUTER USERS IN 1955

 People are essential to computer systems because they  Used to calculate radiation dose distributions in cancer
design , develop and operate hardware and software patients.

DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Involves the transmission of data from one location to
another through the use of pathways which is referred to
as transmission media or channels.
 Examples are telephone lines, coaxial cable, microwaves,
satellites, and radio waves and optical fibers.
NOWADAYS
 lt is applied for imaging and non-imaging purposes.
IMAGING APPLICATIONS
 Modalities in which the information acquired from the
patient is subject to computer processing.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
There are four network configurations:
1. Bus NON-IMAGING APPLICATIONS
2. Star  Refers to Radiology Information System (RIS)
3. Ring  Hospital Information System (HIS)
4. Hierarchical  Picture Archiving and Communications Systems
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*which can connect to a Hospital Information System

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL STANDARDS

 Protocol deals with specifics of how a certain task will be
done
 Standard is an approved reference model and protocol
determined by standard setting groups or building
products and services.
 0. is the| standard application protocol for use in His and
RIS.
 DICOM is the imaging communication protocol for
PACS, and was developed by the American College of
Radiology and National Electrical Manufacturers
Association.