Assignment II

Heat transfer group 1

Names Student number
Otade Joshua 2100708958
Were Nathan 2100700491
Ogwang Hallan 2100718963
Ochepa Erasmus 2100706899
Ochola Joseph Peter 2100700318
Joel Ayii Philip Wuor 2100720107
Abenawe Gregory 2100700491
Vudriko Saviour 2100719961
Anywar Innocent 2100708040
Otweyo Brian 1800722990
 Notes on Empirical and Practical Relations for Forced-
Convection Heat Transfer

Introduction

Forced Convection Heat Transfer:

Forced convection heat transfer refers to the process of heat transfer between a solid surface and a
moving fluid (liquid or gas) when an external force, such as a pump or a fan, is used to enhance the fluid
motion. This type of heat transfer is crucial in various engineering applications where efficient thermal
management is essential, such as in heat exchangers, cooling systems, and electronic devices.

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer in Forced Convection:

1. Advection: Advection is the bulk movement of the fluid itself, carrying heat along with it. The
fluid in contact with the heated surface absorbs thermal energy, and as it moves away, it
transfers this energy to cooler regions.

2. Conduction: Conduction involves the transfer of heat through the fluid by molecular motion. As
the fluid particles gain energy from the solid surface, they transfer this energy to adjacent
particles through collisions, contributing to the overall heat transfer process.

Role of Empirical Relations:

Empirical relations are often used to predict forced convection heat transfer rates, especially in complex
geometries or situations where analytical solutions are challenging. These relations are based on
experimental data and are developed to provide a simplified correlation between the heat transfer
parameters and governing variables, such as Reynolds number, Prandtl number, and geometrical
characteristics.

These relations, such as Dittus-Boelter equation for turbulent flow or Sieder-Tate equation for laminar
flow, offer engineers a practical tool to estimate heat transfer coefficients without the need for complex
mathematical modeling.

Governing Parameters in Forced Convection:

Several parameters influence forced convection heat transfer, and understanding them is essential for
accurate predictions and efficient system design. The key governing parameters include:

1. Reynolds Number (Re): It represents the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and determines
the flow regime (laminar or turbulent). Higher Reynolds numbers generally lead to increased
convective heat transfer.

2. Prandtl Number (Pr): It characterizes the ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity.
Prandtl number influences the boundary layer thickness and affects the overall heat transfer
efficiency.
 3. Nusselt Number (Nu): This dimensionless parameter relates the convective heat transfer to
conductive heat transfer. It is often correlated with Reynolds and Prandtl numbers to provide a
comprehensive understanding of forced convection heat transfer.

4. Fluid Properties: The thermal conductivity and specific heat of the fluid play a crucial role in
determining its ability to carry and transfer heat.

5. Geometry and Surface Roughness: The shape and roughness of the solid surface in contact with
the fluid impact the boundary layer formation and heat transfer rates.

Engineers use these parameters and empirical relations to optimize heat exchangers, cooling systems,
and other applications, ensuring efficient heat dissipation and system performance.

Key Parameters Influencing Forced Convection:

1. Fluid Properties:

• Density (ρ): The mass per unit volume of the fluid. High-density fluids generally have
higher thermal inertia, affecting their ability to transfer heat.

• Viscosity (μ): A measure of a fluid's resistance to shear flow. Viscosity influences the
fluid's ability to form boundary layers and affects the overall heat transfer process.

• Thermal Conductivity (k): The ability of a fluid to conduct heat. Fluids with higher
thermal conductivity facilitate more efficient heat transfer.

2. Geometry of the Heated Surface:

• Flat Plate, Cylinder, Sphere, etc.: The shape and size of the surface in contact with the
fluid influence the development of boundary layers and alter the flow patterns, affecting
the overall forced convection heat transfer.

3. Flow Characteristics:

• Velocity (u): The speed of the fluid. Higher velocities result in increased convective heat
transfer due to enhanced fluid movement.

• Reynolds Number (Re): The dimensionless ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. It
characterizes the flow regime, with laminar or turbulent flow influencing heat transfer
differently.

• Nusselt Number (Nu) in Forced Convection:

• The Nusselt Number (Nu) is a dimensionless parameter used to characterize the heat
transfer efficiency in forced convection. It represents the ratio of convective heat
transfer to conductive heat transfer across a fluid boundary layer.

• Physical Significance: Ratio of Convective to Conductive Heat Transfer Resistance:

• The physical significance of the Nusselt Number lies in its indication of how much more
effective convective heat transfer is compared to conductive heat transfer. It is a
dimensionless quantity that expresses the relationship between the heat transfer
 mechanisms at a solid-fluid interface. A higher Nu value suggests that convective heat
transfer dominates, making the overall heat transfer more efficient, while a lower Nu
value indicates a more significant influence of conductive heat transfer.

• In other words, Nu quantifies the enhancement or suppression of heat transfer due to

fluid motion. It is a crucial parameter in forced convection studies, helping engineers
understand and optimize heat transfer processes in applications such as heat exchangers
and cooling systems.

Relationship Between Nu, Heat Transfer Coefficient (h), Characteristic Length (L), and
Thermal Conductivity of the Fluid (k):

• The Nusselt Number is mathematically expressed as:

Nu=hL/k

where:

• Nu is the Nusselt Number,

• ℎ is the convective heat transfer coefficient,

• L is a characteristic length (e.g., the diameter of a pipe, the length of a plate),

• k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.

This relationship shows that the Nusselt Number is directly proportional to the convective heat transfer
coefficient and the characteristic length, while inversely proportional to the thermal conductivity of the
fluid. Essentially, a higher Nu value indicates a more efficient convective heat transfer process, with the
convective resistance being lower compared to the conductive resistance.

Engineers use the Nusselt Number to analyze and design heat transfer systems, providing a valuable tool
for predicting and optimizing forced convection heat transfer in various engineering applications.

Distinguishing Between Laminar and Turbulent Flow Regimes based on Reynolds Number (Re):

Reynolds Number (Re) is a dimensionless parameter used to predict the flow regime in fluid dynamics. It
is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and is expressed mathematically as:

Re=ρuL/μ

where:

• ρ is the fluid density,

• u is the fluid velocity,

• L is a characteristic length (e.g., diameter for a pipe),

• μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.

Characteristics of Each Flow Regime:

1. Laminar Flow:

• Ordered, Predictable Velocity Profile: In laminar flow, fluid particles move in smooth,
parallel layers with minimal mixing between adjacent layers. The flow is characterized by
a predictable velocity profile, where fluid elements follow well-defined paths. The
motion is highly organized and exhibits low levels of turbulence.

• Low Reynolds Number (Re): Laminar flow typically occurs at low Reynolds numbers,
typically below a critical value of around 2,300. The flow remains laminar as long as the
Reynolds number stays within this range.

• Streamlined Flow: The fluid elements move in a regular, streamlined manner, and there
is a clear distinction between layers. Laminar flow is common in situations where the
fluid velocity is low, and viscous forces dominate over inertial forces.

2. Turbulent Flow:

• Random, Chaotic Mixing of Fluid Particles: Turbulent flow is characterized by irregular

and chaotic motion of fluid particles. The fluid elements exhibit random fluctuations and
mixing, leading to a more disordered flow pattern.

• High Reynolds Number (Re): Turbulent flow occurs at higher Reynolds numbers,
generally above the critical value of approximately 2,300. In this regime, inertial forces
dominate over viscous forces, leading to the breakdown of laminar flow patterns.

• Enhanced Mixing and Heat Transfer: Turbulent flow enhances the mixing of fluid
particles, promoting more efficient heat transfer and mass transfer. However, it also
results in increased energy losses due to fluid friction.

• Eddies and Vortices: Turbulent flow is characterized by the formation of eddies, vortices,
and swirls within the fluid. This complex motion is responsible for the chaotic behavior
associated with turbulent flow.

Understanding the transition between laminar and turbulent flow is crucial in various engineering
applications, as it influences the design and performance of systems such as pipes, heat exchangers, and
aircraft components.

Empirical Correlations for Laminar Flow over Various Geometries:

Empirical correlations are equations derived from experimental data to relate dimensionless numbers
and predict certain physical phenomena. In forced convection heat transfer, empirical correlations are
commonly used to estimate the Nusselt Number (Nu) based on the Reynolds Number (Re), Prandtl
Number (Pr), and other relevant parameters. Here are some commonly used correlations for laminar
flow over different geometries:

1. Flat Plate: Nu=C⋅Ren⋅Prm. The constants C, n, and m are determined based on the Prandtl
number. For example, for a constant surface temperature (CST) case, the constants are C≈0.664,
n≈0.5, and m≈0.33.

2. Cylinder: Nu=C⋅Ren⋅Prm. The constants in the correlation vary depending on the cylinder
diameter and flow conditions. For a long, thin cylinder (L/D ratio > 60), the constants are
C≈0.664, n≈0.5, and m≈0.33.

3. Sphere: Nu=C⋅Ren⋅Prm. The constants in the correlation depend on the sphere diameter and flow
regime. For a sphere in a uniform temperature fluid, the constants are C≈2.0, n≈0.5, and m≈0.33.

Limitations of Empirical Correlations:

While empirical correlations provide a convenient way to estimate heat transfer coefficients, it's
essential to be aware of their limitations:

1. Applicable Range of Reynolds Number (Re): Empirical correlations are often valid only within a
specific range of Reynolds numbers. Beyond this range, the flow may transition from laminar to
turbulent, and the correlation's accuracy may diminish.

2. Applicable Range of Prandtl Number (Pr): Similar to Re, the accuracy of empirical correlations is
contingent on the range of Prandtl numbers. Some correlations may be specific to certain fluids,
and deviations can occur when applied to fluids with significantly different Pr.

3. Geometry-Specific: Empirical correlations are geometry-specific, and applying a correlation

designed for one shape to another may yield inaccurate results. For instance, a flat plate
correlation may not be suitable for predicting heat transfer on a cylindrical or spherical surface.

4. Assumption of Steady-State and Uniform Conditions: Most empirical correlations assume

steady-state, fully developed laminar flow and uniform surface conditions. Deviations from these
assumptions may lead to discrepancies between predicted and actual heat transfer rates.

Engineers should exercise caution when using empirical correlations and verify their applicability to
specific situations. Where possible, experimental validation or more sophisticated numerical simulations
should be considered for accurate heat transfer predictions in diverse operating conditions.

Complexity of Predicting Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer:

Predicting heat transfer in turbulent flows is inherently more complex than in laminar flows due to the
chaotic and highly dynamic nature of turbulence. Turbulent flow involves the formation of eddies,
vortices, and swirling motions, making it challenging to develop simple analytical solutions.
Consequently, empirical correlations play a crucial role in estimating heat transfer in turbulent flows,
incorporating parameters such as Reynolds number (Re), Prandtl number (Pr), and surface roughness.

Widely Used Correlations for Turbulent Flow:

 1. Flat Plate: Nu=C⋅Ren⋅Pr1/3 The constants C and n in this correlation depend on the surface
roughness and flow conditions. This correlation is an extension of the laminar flow correlation,
but with modified constants to account for the turbulent regime.

2. Cylinder: The correlation for turbulent flow over a cylinder is similar to the laminar flow
counterpart, but with adjusted constants to accommodate turbulent conditions. The exact
values of the constants depend on factors such as cylinder diameter, surface roughness, and flow
characteristics.

3. Sphere: Similar to the laminar flow case, the correlation for turbulent flow over a sphere
involves modified constants to reflect the turbulent regime. These constants are influenced by
factors such as sphere diameter and flow conditions.

Importance of Considering Surface Roughness and Flow Development Length:

1. Surface Roughness: In turbulent flows, surface roughness becomes a crucial factor influencing
heat transfer. The presence of roughness elements on a surface can alter the local flow patterns,
affect boundary layer development, and influence heat transfer coefficients. Empirical
correlations for turbulent flows often include adjustments for surface roughness effects.

2. Flow Development Length: The development length refers to the distance required for the flow
to become fully developed, achieving characteristics that remain relatively constant
downstream. In turbulent flows, the length of the entry region (where the flow is transitioning to
turbulence) is significant. Correlations may account for the impact of the flow development
length on heat transfer rates.

Considering these factors is essential for accurately predicting heat transfer in turbulent flows. Failing to
account for surface roughness or neglecting the impact of the flow development length can lead to
inaccuracies in heat transfer predictions. Engineers should carefully select or develop correlations based
on the specific conditions of their applications, incorporating considerations for surface conditions,
geometries, and flow characteristics. Additionally, experimental validation is often necessary for reliable
predictions in turbulent flow scenarios.

Practical Challenges in Applying Empirical Correlations:

1. Property Variations with Temperature:

• Challenge: Fluid properties, such as viscosity and thermal conductivity, can vary
significantly with temperature. Many empirical correlations assume constant properties,
leading to inaccuracies when dealing with temperature-dependent fluids.

• Solution: Consider correlations that account for temperature-dependent properties or

use correlations within a limited temperature range. In some cases, numerical
simulations may be preferred for better accuracy.

2. Combined Forced and Natural Convection:

• Challenge: Empirical correlations for forced convection may not accurately predict heat
transfer in situations where both forced and natural convection coexist, such as in
vertical surfaces. The transition between these two modes complicates prediction.
 • Solution: Use correlations specifically developed for combined convection or apply
separate correlations for forced and natural convection as appropriate. Numerical
simulations might be necessary for complex mixed convection situations.

3. Internal Flow (Ducts and Channels):

• Challenge: Internal flows in ducts and channels present challenges due to varying
geometries and flow conditions. Standard correlations may not cover the wide range of
possibilities in internal flows.

• Solution: Employ specialized correlations developed for internal flows, such as the
Dittus-Boelter equation for pipes. These correlations often consider the specific
characteristics of confined flows.

Additional Correlations for Practical Situations:

1. Dittus-Boelter Equation for Internal Flow in Pipes: Nu=0.023Re0.8⋅Pr0.3. This equation is widely
used for forced convection in fully developed turbulent flows inside pipes. It provides a more
accurate representation of heat transfer in internal flows, accounting for the specific
characteristics of flow in confined geometries.

2. Churchill-Swirling Flow Correlation for Combined Forced and Natural Convection: Nu=(0.60 +
0.387Ra1/6/(1+(0.559/Pr)9/16)8/17)2. This correlation considers the combined effects of forced and
natural convection in swirling flows. It is applicable for situations where both modes of heat
transfer are significant, providing a more accurate prediction in mixed convection scenarios.

Need for Good Judgment and Understanding:

• Correlation Selection: Engineers must exercise good judgment when selecting correlations,
considering the specific characteristics of their applications. The choice of correlation should
align with the flow regime, geometry, and boundary conditions.

• Understanding Physical Phenomena: Empirical correlations are simplifications of complex

physical phenomena. A deep understanding of the underlying physics is crucial to ensure the
appropriate use and interpretation of correlations. Engineers should be aware of the limitations
and assumptions associated with each correlation.

• Validation and Sensitivity Analysis: Whenever possible, validate selected correlations against
experimental data relevant to the specific application. Sensitivity analyses can help assess the
impact of variations in parameters and conditions on the accuracy of predictions.

In summary, while empirical correlations provide practical tools for estimating heat transfer in various
situations, their application requires careful consideration of specific challenges and the judicious use of
correlations that align with the complexities of the given scenario. Engineers should leverage their
understanding of physical phenomena and, when in doubt, resort to numerical simulations or
experimental validation for accurate predictions.

Limitations of Empirical Correlations:

1. Restricted Validity Range of Parameters:

• Challenge: Empirical correlations are often derived from experimental data within
specific ranges of parameters like Reynolds number (Re), Prandtl number (Pr), and
surface roughness. Applying correlations beyond these ranges may lead to inaccurate
predictions, especially in flow regimes where the correlation was not validated.

• Limitation Impact: Users must carefully consider the applicability of correlations to their
specific conditions and ensure that the chosen correlation falls within its validated
parameter range.

2. Inability to Capture Complex Flow Features:

• Challenge: Empirical correlations are simplifications of the complex fluid dynamics

involved in heat transfer. They may struggle to capture intricate flow features such as
separation, secondary flows, or three-dimensional effects.

• Limitation Impact: In situations with complex flow patterns, such as those involving
swirling or recirculating flows, empirical correlations may provide only approximate
results. More sophisticated numerical simulations might be necessary to account for
these complexities accurately.

3. Requirement for User Expertise in Correlation Selection and Application:

• Challenge: Choosing the right correlation requires a good understanding of the physical
phenomena involved, as well as knowledge of the specific conditions of the problem at
hand. Users must be familiar with the limitations and assumptions of each correlation.

• Limitation Impact: Misapplication of correlations, such as using a laminar flow

correlation for a turbulent flow situation or neglecting factors like surface roughness, can
lead to significant errors in heat transfer predictions.

4. Dependence on Experimental Data:

• Challenge: Empirical correlations are derived from experimental data, and their accuracy
is dependent on the quality and relevance of the data used. Correlations may not
accurately capture specific effects not present in the data set used for their
development.

• Limitation Impact: Users should be cautious when applying correlations to situations

significantly different from those used in their derivation. Extrapolating correlations
beyond the range of the available data can introduce uncertainties.

5. Limited Consideration of Transient Effects:

 • Challenge: Many empirical correlations are based on steady-state assumptions and may
not adequately capture transient effects. Situations involving rapidly changing conditions
or start-up/shutdown processes may not be accurately represented.

• Limitation Impact: For transient heat transfer scenarios, relying solely on empirical
correlations may lead to inaccuracies. Numerical simulations or experimental studies
accounting for transient behavior may be necessary.

In conclusion, while empirical correlations provide valuable tools for estimating heat transfer in a wide
range of situations, users must be aware of their limitations. It is essential to exercise caution in selecting
and applying correlations, considering the specific conditions of the problem, and validating predictions
against experimental data whenever possible. Good engineering judgment, expertise, and a thorough
understanding of the physical phenomena involved are crucial for successful and accurate application of
empirical correlations.

Limitations of Empirical Correlations:

1. Restricted Validity Range of Parameters:

• Challenge: Empirical correlations are often derived from experimental data within
specific ranges of parameters like Reynolds number (Re), Prandtl number (Pr), and
surface roughness. Applying correlations beyond these ranges may lead to inaccurate
predictions, especially in flow regimes where the correlation was not validated.

• Limitation Impact: Users must carefully consider the applicability of correlations to their
specific conditions and ensure that the chosen correlation falls within its validated
parameter range.

2. Inability to Capture Complex Flow Features:

• Challenge: Empirical correlations are simplifications of the complex fluid dynamics

involved in heat transfer. They may struggle to capture intricate flow features such as
separation, secondary flows, or three-dimensional effects.

• Limitation Impact: In situations with complex flow patterns, such as those involving
swirling or recirculating flows, empirical correlations may provide only approximate
results. More sophisticated numerical simulations might be necessary to account for
these complexities accurately.

3. Requirement for User Expertise in Correlation Selection and Application:

• Challenge: Choosing the right correlation requires a good understanding of the physical
phenomena involved, as well as knowledge of the specific conditions of the problem at
hand. Users must be familiar with the limitations and assumptions of each correlation.

• Limitation Impact: Misapplication of correlations, such as using a laminar flow

correlation for a turbulent flow situation or neglecting factors like surface roughness, can
lead to significant errors in heat transfer predictions.

4. Dependence on Experimental Data:

 • Challenge: Empirical correlations are derived from experimental data, and their accuracy
is dependent on the quality and relevance of the data used. Correlations may not
accurately capture specific effects not present in the data set used for their
development.

• Limitation Impact: Users should be cautious when applying correlations to situations

significantly different from those used in their derivation. Extrapolating correlations
beyond the range of the available data can introduce uncertainties.

5. Limited Consideration of Transient Effects:

• Challenge: Many empirical correlations are based on steady-state assumptions and may
not adequately capture transient effects. Situations involving rapidly changing conditions
or start-up/shutdown processes may not be accurately represented.

• Limitation Impact: For transient heat transfer scenarios, relying solely on empirical
correlations may lead to inaccuracies. Numerical simulations or experimental studies
accounting for transient behavior may be necessary.

In conclusion, while empirical correlations provide valuable tools for estimating heat transfer in a wide
range of situations, users must be aware of their limitations. It is essential to exercise caution in selecting
and applying correlations, considering the specific conditions of the problem, and validating predictions
against experimental data whenever possible. Good engineering judgment, expertise, and a thorough
understanding of the physical phenomena involved are crucial for successful and accurate application of
empirical correlations.

I. Introduction to Empirical Relations in Forced Convection Heat Transfer

A. Definition and Role of Empirical Relations

B. Significance in Engineering Applications

C. Overview of Key Parameters and Governing Equations

II. Importance of Empirical Relations for Practical Calculations

A. Simplifying Complex Heat Transfer Problems

B. Quick Estimation in Engineering Design

C. Application in Heat Exchangers and Cooling Systems

III. Limitations and Challenges of Empirical Correlations

A. Restricted Validity Range of Parameters

B. Inability to Capture Complex Flow Features

C. Dependence on Experimental Data

D. Transient Effects and Steady-State Assumptions

IV. Critical Thinking and Understanding of Physical Mechanisms

A. Need for User Expertise in Correlation Selection

B. Consideration of Physical Phenomena and Flow Characteristics

C. Importance of Validating Predictions Against Experimental Data

V. Empirical Correlations for Laminar Flow over Various Geometries

A. Flat Plate Correlation

B. Cylinder Correlation

C. Sphere Correlation

D. Limitations and Adjustments for Practical Applications

VI. Empirical Correlations for Turbulent Flow and Practical Situations

A. Turbulent Flat Plate Correlation

B. Turbulent Cylinder and Sphere Correlations

C. Dittus-Boelter Equation for Internal Flow in Pipes

D. Churchill-Swirling Flow Correlation for Combined Forced and Natural Convection

VII. Surface Roughness and Flow Development Length in Turbulent Correlations

A. Impact of Surface Roughness on Heat Transfer

B. Consideration of Flow Development Length

C. Practical Implications in Engineering Applications

VIII. Complementary Role of CFD in Complex Problems

A. Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

B. Strengths and Limitations of CFD

C. CFD as a Tool for Validating and Complementing Empirical Correlations

D. Case Studies and Examples

IX. Conclusion

A. Recap of the Importance of Empirical Relations

B. Emphasis on Critical Thinking and Understanding

C. Acknowledgment of CFD's Role in Complex Problems

X. References

A. Citations of Relevant Empirical Correlations

B. CFD Literature and Studies

C. Key Texts and Journals in Forced Convection Heat Transfer

Here are some reference materials you can use to make notes on empirical and practical relations for
forced convection heat transfer:

Textbooks:

Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Incropera DeWitt https://www.wiley.com/en-

us/Fundamentals+of+Heat+and+Mass+Transfer%2C+8th+Edition-p-9781119353881 (This is a classic
textbook that covers forced convection heat transfer in detail, including various empirical correlations)

Heat Transfer by Holman

https://ia800803.us.archive.org/1/items/JackP.HolmanHeatTransferTenthEdition/%5BJack_P._Holman%5
D_Heat_Transfer%2C_Tenth_Edition.pdf (Another comprehensive textbook that covers forced
convection with a good focus on practical applications)

Websites:

Forced Convection Heat Transfer https://www.sfu.ca/~mbahrami/ensc388.html (This website from

Simon Fraser University provides a good overview of forced convection with a focus on dimensionless
numbers used in empirical relations)

BYJU'S - Forced Convection: Definition, Formula, Example [GATE Notes] https://byjus.com/physics/heat-

transfer-convection/ (This website offers a concise explanation of forced convection with a formula
example)

Additional Resources:

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Handbook

http://160592857366.free.fr/joe/ebooks/Mechanical%20Engineering%20Books%20Collection/HEAT%20
TRANSFER/handbook%20of%20HeatTransfer.pdf (The ASME Handbook is a vast resource for engineering
topics, and it likely has a section on forced convection with relevant empirical relations)