STATISTICS - is a branch of applied mathematics
Do students who spend more time in Standard deviation of the
specializing in procedures for collecting, organizing,
presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data from
observations.
Statistics involves much more than simply drawing
graphs and computing averages.
• In education, it is frequently used to
described test results.
• In science, the data resulting from
experiments must be collected and
analyzed.
• Manufacturers can provide better
products at reasonable costs through
the use of statistical quality control
techniques.
• In government, many kinds of statistical
data are collected all the time.
• A knowledge of statistics can help you
become more critical in your analysis of
information; hence you will not be
misled by manufactured polls, graphs,
and averages.
Statistical question – one that can be answered by
collecting data that vary.
2 Types of Data
1. Numerical Data Set – are those numerical form
which are either continuous or discrete.
1. Discrete data - also referred to as
discrete values, is data that only takes
certain values. Commonly in the form
of whole numbers or integers, this is
data that can be counted and has a
finite number of values. It is a
numerical type of data that includes
whole, concrete numbers with specific
and fixed data values determined by
counting.
2. Continuous data – it refers to data that
can be measured. This data has values
that are not fixed and have an infinite
number of possible values. These
measurements can also be broken
down into smaller individual parts. It
includes complex numbers and varying
data values measured over a particular
time interval. Some examples of
continuous data would include: The
height or weight of a person.
a. 2. Categorical Data - Categorical data
refers to a form of information that can
be stored and identified based on their
names or labels. It is a type of
qualitative data that can be grouped
into categories instead of being
measured numerically.
4 steps can be followed to solve real life problems
using statistics:
1. Pose the questions that can be
answered by data.
2. Determine a plan to collect data.
3. Organize and summarize the data.
4. Interpret the results and answer the
question pose in step 1 using the
organized and summarized data.
Example of Statistical Questions:
1. How many hours does the grade 7
students spend time in studying?
(summarizing question)
2. Do the grade 7 students spend more
time in social media than studying?
(Comparing question)
3.
studying do better in exam? Standard deviation of the
(relationship question)
population
Example of Non-Statistical Questions: sample
1. How old are you?
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2. What is your favorite subject?
3. How many siblings does Elise have?
Procedures for Computing a Standard Deviation:
Note: non-statistical question above has definite
answer and do not need data to be gathered. 1. Determine the mean of the n
numbers.
Examples of Categorical Data:
2. For each number, calculate the
1. Since our country is infected with deviation (difference) between the number of the
Corona Virus, do you follow the health mean of the numbers.
protocols given by the Department of
Health? 3. Calculate the square of each
deviation and find the sum of these squared
2. Winter melon is my favorite milk tea deviations.
flavor.
4. If the data is a population, then
3. Blue signifies calmness, tranquility, divide the sum by n. If the data is a sample, then
relaxation and peace. divide the sum by n-1.
Examples of Numerical Data: PRESENTATION OF DATA
a. Discrete data GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA
1. Number of boys and girls in grade 7 per When data are presented
section. as graph, they are easily interpreted, and
2. The result of rolling 3 dice. compared. As a consequence, data become more
3. The number of books in the shelves. interesting to the readers.
b. Continuous Data FOR UNGROUPED DATA
1. The heights of all grade 7 students Data in an ungrouped
2. Age of a person frequency distribution can be presented graphically
3. Distance travelled by an airplane to give a better picture of the distribution. Some
overtime. forms of graphs for ungrouped frequency
4. Measures of dispersion or variability distribution are pie chart, bar graph and line graph.
MEASURE OF variability
- a measure of variability of a set of PIE CHART
data is a number that conveys the idea of the
spread for the data set. A pie graph or pie chart is
another visual representation of data. It is used to
 Range show how all the parts of something are related to
the whole.
 Variation/ Variance
It is represented by a circle
 Standard Deviation divided into slices or sectors of various sizes that
show each part’s relationship to the whole and to
 RANGE – measures the distance
other parts of the circle.
between the largest and the smallest
values and, as such, gives an idea of BAR GRAPH
the spread of the data set.
A bar graph
 However, the range does uses rectangles (or bars) of uniform width to
not use the concept of deviation. It is
represent data, particularly the nominal or
affected by outliers but does not categorical type of data. The height of the rectangle
consider all values in the data set.
denotes the frequency of the variable.
Thus, it is not a very useful measure of
variability. There are two
types of bar graph: the vertical bar graph, which is
 Range (R)= highest value – lowest sometimes called a column chart, and the
value horizontal bar graph. A vertical bar graph is used to
show the changes on the numerical value of a
Variance – the variance for a given data set is variable over a period of time.
the square of the standard deviation of the
data. LINE GRAPH
Variance of the population Variance of A line graph is used to
the sample represent changes in data over a period of time.
Data like changes in temperature, income,
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2 population, and the like can be represented by a
line graph. Data are represented by points and are
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joined by line segments. A line graph may be
curved, broken, or straight.
Generally, the horizontal
axis is used as the time axis and vertical axis is used
STANDARD DEVIATION
to show the changes in other quantity.
- the Standard Deviation is a measure
of how spread-out numbers are. Its symbol is
σ (the greek letter sigma). FOR GROUPED DATA
Some forms of graphs for grouped frequency • Present final results in the form of
distribution are the Histogram and Ogive. probabilities
HISTOGRAM • Draw conclusions that go beyond the
available data
A Histogram is
a bar graph that shows the frequency of data that • Use techniques like hypothesis testing,
occur within a certain interval. In a histogram, the confidence intervals, and regression
bars are always vertical, the width of each bar is and correlation analysis
based upon the size of the interval it represents,
and there are no gaps between adjacent bars. QUANTITATIVE and QUALITATIVE VARIABLES
Histograms have no gaps because their bases cover
a continuous range of possible values. QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE
OGIVE - consist of numbers representing
counts of measurements.
The ogive
(also called the cumulative frequency graph or - measure or identify an
cumulative frequency curve) is a graph plotted from information using numeric scales.
a cumulative frequency table.
Examples:
The following examples
show how to draw a cumulative frequency curve 1. Height
for grouped data. 2. Number of Sibling(s)
3. Speed of a car
DESCRIPTIVE and INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 4. Number of students in a classroom
5. Amount of shirt in the drawer
POPULATION – is the entirety of the group including 6. Temperature
all members that forms a set of data.
Quantitative Variables can be classified as:
SAMPLE – contains a few members of the
population. Samples were taken to represent the Discrete Variable – whose values can be counted
characteristics or traits of population. using integral values.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Continuous Variable – can assume any numerical
value over an interval or intervals.
- used to say something or describe a
set of information collected. It can be represented QUALITATIVE VARIABLE
with graphs.
- can be separated into different
Common tools are: categories that are distinguished by non-numerical
characteristics. Describing an object.
-Measure of Central Tendency (middle value)
Examples:
-Measure of Variability (Spread of data set)
- taste of a banana.
Ex: In Math test, 32 out of 40 students were able to
receive a passing mark. The average score of the - color of Ben’s sock.
class is 82 out of 100.
- feelings about your crush.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
STATISTICAL INSTRUMENTS
- used to say something about a larger
group (population) using information collected Observation – it focuses in determining the changes
from a small part of that population (sample). It in the attitude, characteristics, and behavior of
also uses to make predictions. people or other subjects.
Common tools are: The technique includes watching and recording
actions and behaviors.
- Hypothesis Testing
Interviews – it is being performed through
- Regression Analysis personally asking questions to people who have the
authority or expertise to say something about the
Ex. In a sample survey conducted, 65% of Filipino data needed.
Generation Z prefer to drink milk tea than coffee
while only 34% of Filipino Millennials prefer to Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
drink milk tea than coffee.
- questionnaires usually are comprised of a number
of questions that can either be closed questions,
open-ended questions, or multiple-choice.
Types of Questions:
1. CLOSED Questions – these are questions which
can be answered with “yes” or “no”, or they have a
limited set of possible answers (such as, A, B, C, or
All of the above).
2. OPEN-ENDED Questions – these are questions
that allow someone to give a free form-form
answer.
- Example: “How did you answer the modules?”
3. MULTIPLE-CHOICE Questions
- these are questions that provide a
certain number of specific response options as
possible answers.
- Example: How did you spend your free time?
a. Reading
b. listening to radio
c. Surfing the internet
d. Watching TV
e. Others (please specify: ___)
Survey – in a national level, surveys are usually
covered by the government and other form of
surveying organization such as National Statistics
Office (NSO).
A survey can also be done on a small scale (a class
of 25 students can be surveyed)
frequency distribution
Frequency Distribution
- is a tabular
or graphical representation of a data showing the
frequency associated with each data value.
Histogram
- is a graphical
representation of a frequency distribution in which
the variance (v) is plotted on the x-axis (horizontal)
and the frequency (f) is plotted on the y-axis
(vertical).
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
MEAN (Arithmetic Mean)
- is the sum of all the data
values, divided by the total frequency (number of
observations).

Descriptive statistics:
• Describe the features of populations
and/or samples
• Organize and present data in a purely
factual way
• Present final results visually, using
tables, charts, or graphs
• Draw conclusions based on known data
• Use measures like central tendency,
distribution, and variance
Inferential statistics:
• Use samples to make generalizations
about larger populations
• Help us to make estimates and predict
future outcomes
- it is used to know the thinking, feeling
or opinion about a certain phenomenon, idea and
Ifx 1+ x 2+ x 3 . . . . x n are the n observations of
etc. a variable, then the mean, x
- FGD is conducted with a small group
of people with common knowledge and common x1 + x 2 + x 3
Mean = =
field (usually 6-8 people).
n
Questionnaire – if you have big number of samples,
it is the most practical way to use. You gather ∑ of values
through writing.
total number of values
- however, you must be careful presenting your
questions, since we need to consider the culture, NOTE:
characteristics of the respondents.
1. The Mean is unique.
- you may use email, letter, or personally give your
2. The Mean is affected by extreme
questionnaire to your respondents.
values.
- using diff. questions and approaches to
MEDIAN
questioning, can allow us access to information we
require.
- is the values that lies in
the middle of the data when it is arranged in
ascending or descending order. So, half the data is
below the median and half the data is above the - The person gathering the data is called the
median. ~
x interviewer, while the person supplying the data is
the interviewee.
NOTE:
2. Questionnaire Method – on this method data is
gathered through a set of question that is mailed or
1. The Median can be obtained even
handed to respondents who are expected to read
when some of the data values are not
and understand them.
known.
- And the respondents then, write down their
2. It is not affected by extreme values.
responses in the space provided the accomplished
questionnaire is then returned for appropriate
3. It is unique for a given data set.
processing.
MODE
3. Observation Method – the data on this method
- The value of the variable are gathered either individually or collectively by
which occurs most frequently in a data set. means of observation.

NOTE: - The person who gathers the data is called an

investigator while the person being observed is
1. The mode is not always unique. called the subject.

2. It is not affected by extreme values. 4. Experiment Method – this method is used when
the objective is to determine the cause-and-effect
3. The mode can also be used for relationship of a certain phenomenon under
qualitative data. controlled condition.

THINGS TO REMEMBER:

Remember: - After gathering data, we need to organize them. If

we don’t do this, we might miss important
The set of data can have information about the data and may result to
no mode. difficulty in interpreting the data that we have
gathered.
Types of Mode
- Using frequency table helps us to record, clarify
1. One mode – Unimodal and easily find what we are looking for our data. In
a tally table, tally marks ( I ) are used to record
2. Two modes – Bimodal data, while in a frequency table, numbers are used
instead of tally marks.
3. More than two modes – Multimodal
Frequency – the number of occurrences of a data
4. If no observation with the highest frequency –
No Mode Frequency table – is a table that lists items and
shows the number of times the items occur.
GATHERING STATISTICAL DATA and
Steps in constructing a frequency table (for
ORGANIZING DATA ungrouped data):

in a Frequency Distribution Table
Collection of data is an important part of Statistics.
Data should be collected in a manner that they are
accurate and convenient to use.
Data is a collection of facts or information. They
may be gathered by using the following methods.
Step 1: Make three columns. Arrange the data in
order in the first column.
Step 2: Make a tally.
Step 3: Count the tallies then write the frequencies
Step 4: Total all the frequencies

1. Conducting Surveys Steps in constructing a frequency table for a given

ungrouped data to be transformed as a grouped data.
Example: Teacher made a form and ask the
students to fill out the previous grades and return
the form to him/her

2. Observing the Outcomes of Events

Example: Jessa wanted to find whether a die was

fair or biased. She tossed the die 40 times and
recorded the results.

Taking measurements in experiments

Example: The physicist and chemist conducted an

experiment on how can saw dust be substituted for
sand in the production of hollow blocks.

4. Reading Statistical Publication

Example: Mr. Rivera check the date of birth of each

student in the class registry.

Methods Used in the Collecting Data

1. Interview Method – this method of collecting
data is an oral or verbal communication where the
interviewer asks questions in any mode (face to
face, telephone, or virtual) to an interviewee.