Intelligent sensors use necessary digital electronics to provide

1. Communication capabilities 1. Increased measurement range

2. Data processing 2. Compensation for hysteresis and other non-
3. Fault analysis linearities
3. Compensation for temperature changes
4. Configuration guidance 4. minimal cost and power overhead on the
5. Self-health-monitoring features overall system
6. Performance tracking 5. Selectable time constants ( controlled
7. Drift monitoring signal damping)
8. Convenient access to devices 6. Switchable ranges (using several primary
transducers within the instrument, which
9. Network management each measure over a different range)
10. Security 7. Switchable units for the output (e.g., display
11. Increased sensitivity in imperial or SI units)
8. Remote control of the instrument options
9. Self-calibration
10. Various output options, 4 20 mA, Ethernet,
wireless, etc.
11. Self-learning ability

208
209
 What is an
Ideal
Transducer???

210
1. The transducer element should sense the desired input signal in its required amplitude and
frequency

Amplitude, usually in narrow band like 1/3-octave

Amplitude, usually in narrow band like 1/3-octave

Maximum or Clip Level Maximum or Clip Level

Phenomenon 2:
Outside Operating
Phenomenon 1:
Range, not OK
Within Operating
Range, is OK

Operating Range of Operating Range of

Component or System Component or System

Resolution or Noise Level Resolution or Noise Level

Lower Corner Frequency Upper Corner

Lower Corner Frequency Upper Corner

211
 Characteristics of an Ideal Transducer
The transducer element should sense the desired input signal in its required amplitude and
frequency
Insensitive to other signals present. For example, an ideal velocity transducer should sense
the instantaneous velocity and should be insensitive to the local pressure or temperature.
It should not alter the event to be measured (high input impedance)
It should be amenable to modifications using appropriate processing and display devices.
Because of this, the transduced signals in the electrical form are preferred
It should have good accuracy
It should have good reproducibility (precision)
It should have linear relationship between the output and the input
It should be able to sense large input frequencies -> adequate frequency response, AKA
good dynamic response
It should have no drift with time
It should not induce phase distortions (i.e. should not induce time lag between the input
and output transducer signals)
It should be able to withstand hostile environments without damage
It should be easily available and reasonably priced.

212
Characteristics of an Ideal Transducer
It should have good accuracy
It should have good reproducibility (precision)

213
Characteristics of an Ideal Transducer
It should have linear relationship between the
output and the input

214
 Instrumentation Selection Strategies

Maximum or Clip Level

Amplitude, usually in narrow band like 1/3-octave

Maximum or Clip Level

Amplitude, usually in narrow band like 1/3-octave

Phenomenon 2:
Outside Operating
Phenomenon 1: Range, not OK
Within Operating
Range, is OK

Operating Range of Operating Range of

Component or System Component or System

Resolution or Noise Level Resolution or Noise Level

Lower Corner Frequency Upper Corner Lower Corner Frequency Upper Corner

215
 Measurement Needs and Constraints

Instrumentation design must consider amplitude and

frequency needs and constraints
ALL measurement systems have limitations in all three
domains
A large part of the ART of instrumentation design and
implementation is the optimization of needs and constraints

216
 Example:
Piezoelectric
Accelerometers &
Earthquake Motions

Not Sensitive to <1Hz Motions, an

important part of earthquake shaking

217
Instrumentation
Dynamic Transducer Characteristics Good tracking

Bad tracking

83
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics
If the input is static (i.e., does not change with time: time-
independent), the output is generally some factor times the input,
y = Kx, where K is called the static sensitivity of the measuring system.

For time-dependent (unsteady or dynamic) inputs, such systems are

called dynamical systems, and their behavior is called dynamic
system response.
Bad tracking
Good tracking

84
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics: Response Time
Sensors do not change output state immediately when an
input parameter change occurs.

Rather, a sensor will change to the new state over a period

of time, called the response time.

In general sensors should be selected to have a much faster

response than the system being measured.

85
Different input signals used to check the dynamic
system performance

86
 Four possible test input signals
The dynamic system response of the system is typically tested with one of four
types of inputs:

Step input: a sudden change in the

measurand at time t = 0, as sketched
to the right. The step input is used to
measure the time response of the
system. xi and xf are the initial and final
values of x respectively.

Ramp input: a linear increase in the

measurand, starting at time t = 0, as
sketched to the right. As shown, the
initial value of x is typically zero. In real
life, x reaches some upper limit, but
we are not concerned here with the
final value of x.

87
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics
The dynamic system response of the system is typically tested with one of four
types of inputs:

Impulse input: a sudden spike in the

measurand, at some time t, as sketched to
the right. Ideally, the spike has infinite
amplitude and zero thickness. In reality, the
spike has large amplitude and occurs over a
very short interval of time. The impulse
input provides another alternate way to
measure the time response of the system.

Sinusoidal input: the measurand is a

periodic sine wave of frequency f and
amplitude A, as sketched to the right.
When the frequency of the sine wave is
changed, the sinusoidal input provides
a way to measure the frequency response
of the system.

88
Dynamic Transducer Characteristics:
zero-order dynamic systems

89
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics: zero-order dynamic systems

Consider the case where measurand x is changing with time (-> dynamic) -> x = x(t)

In an ideal measuring system, output y would respond instantaneously to changes in x, y(t) =

K x(t)

An ideal measuring system is thus also called a zero-order dynamic system

An example of a zeroth order dynamic system is the resistor bellow, with voltage drop as the
input, and the current through the resistor as the output.

An electric resistor is almost a zero-order dynamic system.

In most real measuring systems, the output does not respond instantly to changes
in the measurand, and these systems are thus not zero-order dynamic systems.
Most real systems behave as either first-order or second-order dynamic systems.

90
Response of a First-Order System
Subjected to a Step Input

91
Time Constant for first-order system subjected to a
step input

A first-order dynamic system is characterized by a single parameter, the first-

order time constant .

This is the time needed to reach 63.2% of the final value.

After three time constants, the

output has increased to
approximately 95.0% of its final
value (the 95% rise time)
is the time constant
92
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics: first-order systems

Example: Response of a first-order system (e.g., thermocouple, RC circuit) to a step input

is the time constant

0.95

0.632

93
94
 Response of a Second-Order
System Subjected to a Step Input

95
Dynamic Transducer Characteristics: Second-Order Systems

(Example: Response of a second-order system to a step input)

If the mass is suddenly released from its initial displacement location yi, it will
eventually fall back down to its final displacement location yf.

Whether the mass oscillates or no depends on the damping ratio .

96
Dynamic Transducer Characteristics
Response of a second-order system to a step input

is the damping ratio

> 1: Over-damped
= 1: Critically-damped
=0.7: Optimally-damped
<0.7: Under-damped 97
Response of a second-order system to a step input damping ratio = 0

98
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics
Response of a second-order system to a step input

> 1: the output has no overshoot, and asymptotes to the final value without oscillation, but
more slowly than does the critically damped case. This is called over-damped. Physically, there
is too much damping.

99
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics
Response of a second-order system to a step input

= 1 (the black dashed curve): the output has no overshoot and no oscillation. This
is called critically-damped. Physically, the damping is just enough to eliminate
oscillations

100
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics
Response of a second-order system to a step input
= 0.7 (red curve): This case is called optimally-damped

Physically, although there is not enough damping to eliminate oscillations, the output settles
down to the final value very quickly.
In fact, at optimal damping, the output settles more quickly than for any other damping ratio.
The maximum overshoot occurs at a non-dimensional time of approximately 4.4, and the
magnitude of the first overshoot is only about 4.6% of the magnitude of (yf - yi).
Subsequent undershoots and overshoots are significantly smaller than this, and the oscillation
dies out very quickly.

101
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics
Response of a second-order system to a step input
In practice, if overshoots cannot be tolerated, the parameters should
be adjusted as necessary to make = 1 (critically-damped) or > 1
(over-damped).

If the fastest response time is desired, and a small overshoot can be

tolerated, the damping ratio should be around 0.7 (optimally-damped).

102
 Dynamic Transducer Characteristics
Response of a second-order system to a step input

The 90% rise time is defined as the first time the output crosses the lower dashed red line, i.e., when
the non-dimensional output reaches a value of 0.90 for the first time.
In this example, the 90% rise time is approximately 1.6 non-dimensional time units, as indicated on
the plot.
The 90% settling time is defined as the last time the output crosses either the lower or upper dashed
red line, i.e., when the non-dimensional output settles within a value that is +/-10% of the final value.
In this example, the 90% settling time is approximately 13.6 non-dimensional time units, as indicated.

103
 Bandwidth
The frequency limit at which the amplitude drops below a
certain level.
Output
amplitude

100%
98%

Frequency

Fband width
104
 Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning is the manipulation of
a signal in a way that prepares it for the next
stage of processing

A common example is here -----

218
 Signal Conditioning
Operations performed on signals to make them suitable for
interfacing with other elements in the process-control loop.

The signal may be:

Too small has to be amplified
Contain interference - has to be removed
Non-linear - requires linearization
Analog - has to be made digital
Digital has to be made analog
219 219
219
Signal Conditioning

220
Signal Conditioning: where it fits in the complete system?

National Instruments Application Note 048

221
 Examples on Signal Conditioning
1. Getting the signal into the right type of signal

This can mean taking the signal into a change in

voltage

For example, the resistance change of a strain

gauge has to be converted into a voltage change.

This can be done by the use of a Wheatstone

bridge in the deflection mode

https://www.instrumentationtoday.com/wp-
content/uploads/2011/08/Quarter-And-Full-Bridge-Strain-Gauge-Circuit.jpg

222
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 Examples on Signal Conditioning

1. Getting the signal into the right type of signal

National Instruments Application Note 048

223
 Examples on Signal Conditioning
1. Getting the signal into the right type of signal

Current signals (usually 0 to 20 mA

or 4 to 20 mA) may be converted to
voltage signals using precision
resistors.

224
224
 Examples on Signal Conditioning

2. Getting the right level of the signal

The signal from a thermocouple is typically a few
millivolts.
If the signal is to be fed into the next part of the
measurement system (e.g., an analog-to-digital
converter), then it needs to be made much larger, in
volts rather than millivolts. https://ni.scene7.com/is/image/ni/image6981535760077279735?scl=1

Operational amplifiers are widely used for

amplifying low-level signals

https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/61BZxVb09hL._SL1500_.jpg
225
225
 Examples on Signal Conditioning

3. Eliminating or reducing noise

Filters can be used to eliminate 50 Hz noise from a
signal

https://www.murata.com/-/media/webrenewal/products/emc/emifil/knowhow/basic/chapter06-p1/chapter06-
p1_img0002.ashx?la=en&cvid=20170911093407292111
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 Examples on Signal Conditioning
4. Making the Signal linear

The signals from some sensors, e.g. thermocouples,

are non-linear and thus a signal conditioner might
be used so that the signal fed on to the next
element is linear

https://www.dataforth.com/g/AppNotes/an505/an505_fig1.png

227
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 Examples on Signal Conditioning
5. Cold Junction Compensation in
Thermocouples
Proper use of thermocouple requires that the cold
junction must be kept at 0C This is inconvenient
https://instrumentationtools.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Thermocouple-cold-
junction-compensation.png

Another solution is to employ electronic cold

junction compensation

https://instrumentationtools.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Thermocouple-cold-
junction-compensation.png

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 Examples on Signal Conditioning

6. Providing external excitation

National Instruments Application Note 048

229
229
 Examples on Signal Conditioning
7. Bridge Completion

https://emant.com/image/Strain_html_m6ee05471.gif

230
230
 Examples on Signal Conditioning
8. Isolating one part of a system from other
parts of the system (break ground loops)
An isolation transformer transfers electrical power
from an AC source to some equipment or device
while isolating the powered device from the power
source

https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2YCi321VyvE/V5UncG9bmII/AAAAAAAAAZg/mT4ifKcdm2YyL2015HadLIM5JujLU-
L2QCLcB/s1600/zx.jpg

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/PACur_GcTJ0/maxresdefault.jpg 231
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