1.

With the help of block diagram, elaborate the working of a generalizes measuring system

The instruments of measurement are considered as systems of interconnected

components organized to perform a specified function for the purpose of analysis
and synthesis. The performance of measurement system can be described in terms
of static and dynamic characteristic. It is desirable to describe the operation of a
measuring instrument or a system in a generalized manner without restoring the
details of the physical aspects of a measurement system. The whole operation is
described in terms of functions elements. Each functional element is made up of a
distinct component or groups of components which perform the required & definite
steps in the measurement.

The functional elements:

Primary Sensing Element: The quantity under measurement makes its first contact
with the primary sensing element of a measurement system. The physical quantity to
be measured, in the first place is sensed & detected by an element which gives the
output in a different analogous form. This output is then converted into an electrical
signal by a transducer.
Variable Conversion Element: The output of the primary sensing element may be
electrical signal of any form, as voltage, frequency or some other electrical
parameter which is not always suited as output to all the system. Therefore, to
perform the desired function it is necessary to convert this output signal to some
other suitable form, preserving the information content of the original signal.
Variable Manipulation Element: The function of this element is to manipulate the
signal presented to it preserving the original nature of the signal. Manipulation here
means only a change in numerical value of the signal.
Data Transmission Element: An element that transmits the signal from one location
to another without changing its information content is data transmission element.
Data may be transmitted over long distances.
Data Presentation Element: The information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the
system for monitoring, control or analysis purposes. The information conveyed must
be in a form intelligible to the personnel or to the intelligent instrumentation system.
This function is done by data presentation element
 2. Discuss the parameter that influence the dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument

Dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument refer to the case where the measured variable
changes rapidly. As has been discussed earlier the sensors in control system cannot react to a
sudden change in measured variable immediately. A certain amount of time is required before the
measuring instrument in control system technology can indicate any output based on the input
received by the measuring instrument. The amount of time depends on resistance, capacitance,
mass and dead time of the measuring instrument. Step response, ramp response, frequency
response of the measuring instrument determines the dynamic characteristics of the measuring
instrument in control system technology.

The Following are the dynamic characteristics

Dynamic Error

Speed of Response.

Fidelity

Lag.

Dynamic Error: The difference between the true value of the measured quantity to
the value shown by the measuring instrument under varying conditions.

Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity of the measurement system that

responds to the changes in the measuring variable.
It indicates how active and fast the system is.

Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measuring instrument is capable of

faithfully reproducing the changes in input, without any dynamic error.

Lag: Every system takes at least some time to respond, whatever time it may be to
the changes in the measured variable.

For Example Lag occurs in temperature measurement by temperature sensors such

as Thermocouple or RTD or dial thermometer due to scale formation on thermowell
due to process liquid.

Retardation lag: the response of the measurement begins immediately after the

change in measured quantity has occurred.

Time delay lag: in this case after the application of input,  the response of the
measurement system begins with some dead times.

3. Differentiate between analog and digital form of signal with its pros and cons and
applications.

Key Characteristics Analog Signal Digital Signal

Data Value Continuous values Limited to distinct set of

across time spanC values across discreet
time intervals

Wave Type Sine Wave Square Wave

Representation

Polarity Both negative and Only positive values

positive values

Processing Offered Easy Quite complex

Accuracy More Accurate Less Accurate

Decoding Difficult to understand Easy to understand and

and decode decode
 Key Characteristics Analog Signal Digital Signal

Security Not Encrypted Encrypted

Bandwidth Low High

Parameters Amplitude, frequency, Bit rate, bit interval, etc.

Associated phase, etc.

Transmission Deterioration due to Almost zero interference

Quality noise interference of noise resulting in good
transmission quality

Data Storage Data is stored in wave Data is stored in binary

form bit form

Data Density More Less

Power Consumption More Less

Transmission Mode Wire or Wireless Wire

Impedance Low High

Transmission Rate Slow Fast

Hardware Offers No flexibility, Less Offers flexibility, very

Implementation adjustable for range of adjustable to range of use
Adaptability use

Application Audio and Video Computing and Digital

transmission Electronics

Instruments Give many observational Never cause any

Application errors observational errors

Analog signals when compared to digital signals are more accurate.

Digital signals are less expensive, negligible distortion, and have a faster rate of
transmission.

4. Explain the working of Hall effect sensor and mentions its pros and cons

Hall Effect sensor is a type of magnetic sensor. A Hall Effect sensor is a transducer that
varies its output voltage in response to change in magnetic field. In 1879 Edwin Hall
discovered that: “when a conductor or semiconductor with current flowing in one direction
was introduced perpendicular to a magnetic field a voltage which could be measured at right
angles to the current path”. The voltage is.directly proportional to the number of flux lines
passing through the conductor, angle at which they pass through it and amount of current
used. When a current-carrying conductor is placed into a magnetic field, a voltage will be
generated perpendicular to both the current and the field. This principle is known as Hall
Effect.

The output connections are perpendicular to the direction of current. When no magnetic
field is present shown in Figure, the current distribution is uniform and no potential
difference is seen across the output.
When a perpendicular magnetic field is present shown in Figure , a force is exerted on the
current. This force disturbs the current distribution in resulting potential difference (voltage)
across the output.

The Hall effect sensor can also be used to measure the fuel level in a fuel tank. The float
has buoyancy in the fuel. It floats up as the fuel becomes more. The gap between magnet
and hall sensor will changed. It results the changing of the output. The springs allow the
float to move only vertically.
Applications of hall effect sensor

 Hall sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection and current
sensing applications
 Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts such as for
internal combustion engine ignition timing or tachometers.
 They are used in brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent
magnet
 Typical applications are the detection of a moving part replacing a mechanical limit
switch. Another common use is in indexing of rotational or transnational motion

Advantages of hall effect sensor 

1. It is relative low cost compared to electromagnetic switches

2. High frequency operation is possible
3. It is used for multiple purpose usage as displacement, position and proximity sensors
4. It is solid and robust and capable of working in severe environmental conditions as they
are immune to humidity contamination
5. There is no contact bounce problem

Disadvantages
Sensor becomes weak during offset effects caused by misalignment of contact in
Hall element and piezo-resistive effects

5. Sketch the Wheatstone bridge network circuit and explain how strain is being calculated
from the circuit.

The Wheatstone Bridge diamond shaped circuit who’s concept was

developed by Charles Wheatstone can be used to accurately measure
unknown resistance values, or as a means of calibrating measuring
instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc., by the use of a variable resistance
and a simple mathematical formula. Although today digital multimeters
provide the simplest way to measure a resistance. The Wheatstone
Bridge can be used to compare an unknown resistance to that of a known
resistance to determine its value allowing very low values of resistances
down in the milli-Ohms (mΩ) range to be measured. The Wheatstone
bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit can be used in a number of applications
and today, with modern operational amplifiers we can use the Wheatstone
Bridge Circuit to interface various transducers and sensors to these
amplifier circuits. The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two
simple series-parallel arrangements of resistances connected between a
voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero voltage difference
between the two parallel branches when balanced. A Wheatstone bridge
circuit has two input terminals and two output terminals consisting of four
resistors configured in a familiar diamond-like arrangement as shown. This
is typical of how the Wheatstone bridge is drawn.
By replacing R4 above with a resistance of known or unknown value in the
sensing arm of the Wheatstone bridge corresponding to RX and adjusting
the opposing resistor, R3 to “balance” the bridge network, will result in a
zero voltage output. Then we can see that balance occurs when:

The Wheatstone Bridge equation required to give the value of the unknown
resistance, RX at balance is given as:

Where resistors, R1 and R2 are known or preset values.

6. Describe the working of LVDT with a neat diagram. Also state its
applications.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer Construction

LVDT comprises a cylindrical former, which is bounded by one main
winding in the hub of the former and the two minor LVDT windings are
wound on the surfaces. The amount of twists in both the minor windings is
equivalent, but they are reversed to each other like clockwise direction and
anti-clockwise direction.

For this reason, the o/p voltages will be the variation in voltages among the
two minor coils. These two coils are denoted with S1 & S2. Esteem iron
core is located in the middle of the cylindrical former. The excitation voltage
of AC is 5-12V and the operating frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

Working Principle of LVDT

The working principle of the linear variable differential transformer or LVDT
working theory is mutual induction. The dislocation is nonelectrical energy
that is changed into electrical energy. And, how the energy is altered is
discussed in detail in the working of an LVDT.

Working of an LVDT
The working of the LVDT circuit diagram can be divided into three cases
based on the position of the iron core in the insulated former.

 In Case-1: When the core of the LVDT is at the null location, then both
the minor windings flux will equal, so the induced e.m.f is similar in the
windings. So for no dislocation, the output value (e out) is zero because
both the e1 & e2 are equivalent. Thus, it illustrates that no dislocation
took place.
 In Case-2: When the core of the LVDT is shifted up to the null point. In
this case, the flux involving minor winding S1 is additional as contrasted
to flux connecting with the S 2 winding. Due to this reason, e1 will be
added as that of e2. Due to this eout (output voltage) is positive.
 In Case-3: When the core of the LVDT is shifted down to the null point, In
this case, the amount of e2 will be added as that of e1. Due to this
eout output voltage will be negative plus it illustrates the o/p to down on
the location point.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer Applications

The applications of the LVDT transducer mainly include where dislocations
to be calculated that are ranging from a division of mm to only some cms.

 The LVDT sensor works as the main transducer, and that changes
dislocation to an electrical signal straight.
 This transducer can also work as a secondary transducer.
 LVDT is used to measure the weight, force, and also pressure
 In ATMs for Dollar bill thickness
 Used for soil moisture testing
 In machines for making PILLS
 Robotic cleaner
 It is used in medical devices for brain probing
 Some of these transducers are used to calculate the pressure and load
 LVDT’s are mostly used in industries as well as servomechanisms.
 Other applications like power turbines, hydraulics, automation, aircraft,
and satellites

PART – A
1. List the need for measurement in a mechanical industry.

Page no : 1.3

2. define accuracy and precision

Precision is the amount of information whose conveyance takes place

by a number in terms of its digits. Precision shows the closeness of
two or more measurements that they have to each other. It is certainly
different from accuracy.

Accuracy refers to the closeness of the measurements related to a

specific value. Furthermore, accuracy is the description of the
systematic error. Moreover, accuracy gives us the measure of the
statistical bias.

3. Tabulate the truth table of NAND and NOR gates

4. Mention the various elements in a digital circuit.

5. Define strain and write its unit

The ratio of the change in configuration (i.e., shape, length or volume) to the original
configuration of the body is called strain.

i.e., Strain = Change in configuration/Original configuration

It has no unit.

6. State Seebeck effect

• The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two dissimilar
electrical conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the two substances.
• When heat is applied to one of the two conductors or semiconductors, heated electrons flow
toward the cooler one. If the pair is connected through an electrical circuit, direct current (DC) flows
through that circuit

7. Mention any 2 instruments used to measure torque

Calibration Kits

Torque Sensors

8. List the advantages and disadvantages of orifice meter

Advantages of Orifice meter:
 The Orifice is small plates and easy to install/remove.
 Offer very little pressure drop from which 60% to 65% is recovered.
 The orifice meter can be easily maintained.
 Measures a wide range of flows.
 They have a simple construction.
 They have easily fitted between the flanges.
 They are the most suitable for most gases and liquids.
 They are cheap, The price does not increase dramatically with size.
Disadvantages of orifice meter:
 Requires homogeneous fluid.
 Requires single phase liquid
 It requires the flow of axial velocity vectors.
 It causes a pressure drop in the fluid.
 Its accuracy is affected by the density, pressure and viscosity of the fluid.
 The range of measurement of viscosity limits of fluids.

9. Define acceleration and write its units

Acceleration can be defined as the rate of change of velocity with time. It can also be
defined as the increase in velocity per second. The S.I. unit of acceleration is meter
per second square or ms-2.

acceleration a= v2−v1 / t2−t1

/

10. Sketch the schematic of a dynamic microphone

 PART – B

7. Describe the construction working of laser-Doppler

anemometer to measure the flow of incompressible fluid.
Also mention its advantages disadvantages and application

Laser Doppler Anemometer

Doppler Effect is a method for measuring linear velocity. When a
narrow laser beam ( or radio beam or ultrasonic beam) is focused
on an abject, the beam will be reflected back to the source. But if
the object is moving, the frequency of the signal received back will
differ from that of the transmitted signal. This difference in
frequency (Doppler shift) becomes a measure of the velocity of the
object .

LDA is used to measure flow (especially, high frequency turbulence

fluctuations). This device can measure velocity of flow precisely and
they don’t disturb the flow during the measurement process.
The main parts of this device are as follows

1. A laser source (an argon laser or He-Ne laser).

2. A beam splitter that splits the laser beam into two equal
intensity beams.
3. Alens to focus the two split lazer beams at an intersection
point.
4. A photomultiplier tube (PMT)
For a flow whose velocity is to be determine, it is to be noted that
the flow should contain small particles to scatter the light. The
particle concentration should be very small.

Operation of Laser Doppler anemometer

1. The laser source sends a beam that is split by a beam splitter

into two beams.
2. The two parallel beams are focused by the lens L1 such that
they intersect at a point in the test section were flow ( with
particles ) exists. In the region of intersection, interference
fringes are formed.
3. The particles (carried along with the flow) that pass through
the intersection of the beams scatter the light from both the
beams.
4. The scattered light experiences a Doppler shift in frequency
that is directly proportional to the flow velocity.
 5. The light is collected by a photomultiplier tube (PMT). The
device is constructed such that the direct and scattered beams
travel in the same optical path so that an interference will be
observed at the PMT that is proportional to frequency shift.
This shift then gives an indication of flow velocity.
6. A signal processor is used to retrieve velocity data from the
PMT.
Advantages of Laser Doppler anemometer

1. The device does not disturb the flow during measurement

2. The device measure velocity directly
3. Volume of sensing part can be very small
4. Highly accurate
5. Can be used to measure flow of both gases and liquids.
Disadvantages of Laser Doppler anemometer

1. Requires transparent channels

2. Cannot be-used on clean flows
Applications of Laser Doppler anemometer

1. Wind tunnel studies

2. Blood flow measurement
3. Sensing of wind velocity
4. Used in the field of combustion