SENSORS

Sensor Classification
Classification Sensor Type
• Signal Characteristics Analog
Digital

• Power Supply Active

Passive

• Mode of Operation Null Type

Deflection Type
• Subject of Measurement Acoustic
Biological
Chemical
Electric
Mechanical
Optical
Radiation
Thermal
Others
 Quality Parameters of an
Instrumentation System
Sensor characteristics are described in terms of
seven properties:

- Sensitivity
- Resolution
- Accuracy
- Precision
- Backlash
- Repeatability
- Linearity
• Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ability of the measuring instrument to respond to changes in the
measured quantity. It can also be expressed as the ratio of change of output to change of
input.

• Resolution
Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be
detected. It is also known as the degree of fineness with which measurements can be
made. For example, if a micrometer with a minimum graduation of 1 mm is used to
measure to the nearest 0.5 mm, then by interpolation the resolution is estimated as 0.5
mm.

• Accuracy
Accuracy is a measure of the difference between the measured value and actual value.
Ac-curacy depends on the inherent instrument limitations. An experiment is said to be
accurate if it is unaffected by experimental error. An accuracy of ±0.001 means that the
measured value is within 0.001 unit of actual value. In practice, the accuracy is defined
as a percentage of the true value.

Percentage of true value = Measured value - True value (100)

True value

If a precision balance reads 1 g with error of 0.001 g, then the accuracy of the
instrument is specified as 0.1 %. The difference between the measured value and the
true value is called bias (error).
• Backlash
Backlash is defined as the maximum distance or angle through which
any part of a mechanical system can be moved in one direction without
causing any motion of the attached part. Backlash is an undesirable
phenomenon and is important in the precision design of gear trains.
• Repeatability
Repeatability is the ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when
the same measurand is applied repeatedly under the same
environmental conditions.
• Linearity
The characteristics of precision instruments are such that the output is
a linear function of the input. However, linearity is never completely
achieved, and the deviations from the ideal are termed linearity
tolerances. The linearity is expressed as the percentage of departure
from the linear value, i.e., maximum deviation of the output curve from
the best-fit straight line during a calibration cycle. The nonlinearity is
normally caused by nonlinear elements such as mechanical hysteresis,
viscous flow or creep, and electronic amplifiers.
 Linearity

Non-linearity Error

Best straight line for all values Best straight line for zero point
 Precision
Precision is the abi1ity of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of
readings within a given accuracy. Precision is dependent on the reliability
of the instrument

Poor Accuracy, Poor Accuracy, High Accuracy,

Poor Precision High Precision High Precision
Items considered in selecting the transducer
Time constant Maximum overshoot
The range Stability for measurements
Required resolution Material of the measured object
Available space Environmental conditions
Power available for sensing Cost
Production quality
Measurement system
 Distance sensors
Potentiometer
• The rotary potentiometer is a variable resistance device
• Used to measure angular position.
• The o/p voltage is proportional to the i/p displacement.

(a) As the shaft of the potentiometer rotates, the wiper moves from one end of the resistive material to the other. (b) The
inside of a typical potentiometer, showing the wiper contacting a resistive strip.
 Types of Potentiometres
• Wirewound
• Wiper slides along coil of Ni-chrome wire
• Wire tends to fail, temperature variations
• Cermet
• Wiper slides on conductive ceramic track
• Better than wire inmost respects
• Plastic film
• High resolution
• Long life and good temperature stability
 When to use a Potentiometre

• Require analog signal for control

• Require absolute positional information

• Low cost

• Temperature and wear variations

• Not in dusty or wet environments

The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
• It measures linear displacement.
• It must be excited by an ac signal to induce an ac response
in the secondary.
• The o/p amplitude will increase a proportional amount over
a linear range around the null.
• To determine the direction, the secondary coils can be
included in a modulation circuit.
• A low pass filter may be used to convert the rectified o/p
into a smoothed signal.
• Excitation frequency = 10 times the max. expected
frequency of core motion
• Advantages: accurate in the linear range, o/p does not
require amplification, less sensitive to temperature changes
as potentiometer and encoders.
• Disadvantages: limited range of motion and limited
frequency response (limited by core inertia, primary
excitation frequency and the filter cutoff frequency).
Output from a differential transformer.
An interface circuit for an LVDT.
Example: LVDTs
 When to Use an LVDT
• High Accuracy

• Linear operation (synchro Resolver is an

equivalent rotary LVDT)

• Harsh Environment

• Analogue Position Control

• Embedding (in a cylinder for example)

 Tachometer

1- An optical tachometer. 2- A toothed-rotor tachometer.

3- A direct current tachometer : it is essentially a DC generator that produces a DC

output voltage proportional to shaft velocity.
 Tachometres
• Measurement of rotary speed using
a DC generator

• Essentially a motor running in

reverse

• Used to be common to have them

attached to motors to enable direct
analogue feedback

• Much less common now with

digital control (use incremental
encoders)
 Incremental Digital Encoder

• It consists of two tracks and two sensors whose o/p are

called channel A and B.
• Pulse trains occur on these channels at a frequency
proportional to the shaft speed .
• The phase between the signals yields the direction of
rotation.
• Third channel called index produce one pulse/ revolution to
define zero position.
• Quadrature signals are considered (1/4 cycle out of phase
between the two channels)
• Relative position is determined.
• No memory if the power is lost.
The digital optical encoder
 Incremental Encoders
• Pulses from leds are
counted to provide
rotary position
• Two detectors are used
to determine direction
(quadrature)
• Index pulse used to
denote start point
• Otherwise pulses are not
unique
Quadrature direction sensing and resolution enhancement
(CW¼clockwise, CCW¼counter-clockwise).
An incremental encoder interface circuit showing how the latch is
inhibited from changing when the counter is updated.
 Absolute Encoder
• It produces a digital word that distinguishes N distinct portions of the shaft.
• The most common encoding are gray and binary codes.
• It has a memory

An absolute optical encoder using straight binary code.

An absolute optical encoder using straight gray code.
Exclusive-OR gates are used to perform this function. For a Gray code to
binary code conversion of any number of bits N, the most significant bits
(MSB) of the binary and Gray code are always identical, and for each other
bit, the binary bit is the exclusive-OR combination of adjacent Gray code
bits.
Gray code to binary code conversion.
 When to Use an Encoder
• Require accurate position
information:
• 10000 lines incremental
• 360 lines absolute
• Digital feedback loop

• Compact and reasonably rugged

(not as good as inductive)

• Linear encoders are also

available
 Acceleration
• Acceleration is measured via
the force exerted by an
accelerating mass

• Distortion of a piezo

• Motion of a cantilever

• Strain on mass restraints

• Accelerometres mainly used

to measure vibrationation
 Acceleration Sensors
Piezoelectric accelerometers
 Tri-Axial Accelerometres
• Triaxial accelerometres
used in mobile systems
• In high-performance cars
• Inside rotating elements
of turbines
• In aircraft elements
• Provide vibration
information
• Provide short-term position
data
 Inertial Systems
• Many different types of accelerometre and gyroscope systems

• Mechanical bodies, fibre optic, etc …

• Together in an orthogonal arrangement of accelerometres and

gyroscopes, these comprise an inertial measurement unit
(IMU)

• An IMU that is used for navigation is called an inertial

navigation system (INS)

• These are widely used in aircraft and missile navigation and

guidance
Aerospace INS
 Force and Pressure

• Force and Pressure generally measured indirectly

through deflection of an alternate surface
• Mechanism include:
• Physical motion and measurement using an LVDT
• Strain Gauges (metal that changes resistance when
stressed)
• Piezoelectric materials that generate a current
when deformed
LVDT Load Cell
 Strain Gages
Electrical strain gages are divided into the following
classes: resistance, capacitance, photoelectric, and
semiconductor.

Advantages
• small size and mass;
• ease of production over a range of sizes;
• robustness;
• good stability, repeatability and linearity over large
strain range;
• good sensitivity
 Resistance Strain Gages
Principle
Stress = E * strain , E = Young modulus of elasticity
Stress = Force/ area = E * Δ l/l
if Ro = ρ lo / Ao then
Δ R ≈ 2 Ro (Δ l / lo)

• Define gage factor GF as

GF = ( Δ R / R ) / strain ≈ 2 (for wire or foil)

Then Force = (E * area / GF) * ( Δ R / R )

• Construction
- Used in two forms :
1- Wire or foil ( change in length affects the electrical
resistance)
GF= 2.0 – 2.5 μm/m
2- Semiconductor ( change in length affects piezoresistivity)
GF= - 50 to 150 μm/m (nonlinear)

- Sensitivity in one direction only

- Common available resistance for wire 60, 120 , 240, 350, 500,
and 1000 Ω.

- Dummy gage is used to compensate for change in resistance due to

change in temperature.

Δ RT = Ro α ΔT
 Signal Conditioning
The Wheatstone bridge
- For metal gage amplification is required.
- For static balanced bridge R1 = R4 R2 / R3
- For dynamic balanced
Example

A strain gauge with GF = 2.03 and R = 350 Ω is used in the bridge of Figure 5.16a.
The bridge resistors are R1 = R2 = 350 Ω, and the dummy gauge has R = 350Ω. If a
strain of 1450 μm/m is applied, find the bridge offset voltage if Vs = 10.0 volts. Find
the relation between bridge off-null voltage and strain. How much voltage results
from a strain of 1 micro?
• Solution
• With no strain, the bridge is balanced. When the strain is applied, the gauge
resis-tance will change by a value given by
GF= (ΔR/R) / Strain
ΔR = (GF)(Strain)(R)
ΔR = (2.03)(1.45 10-3)(350)
= 1.03Ω
The new resistance R = 351 Ω, The bridge offset voltage is
ΔV = - (Vs/4)(ΔR/R) = -0.007 V
so that a 7-mV offset results.

• The sensitivity is
ΔV = - ( 10/4)(2.03) Δl/l = -5.07 Δl/l
• Thus for every micro of strain will supply only 5.07 μV
 Piezoelectric Transducer
The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional to the magnitude
and direction of the applied force
Q =d F
where d is the charge sensitivity (a constant for a given crystal) of the crystal in C/N.
The force F causes a thickness variation Δt meters of the crystal:

where a is area of crystal, t is thickness of crystal, and Y is Young’s modulus.

The charge at the electrodes gives rise to a voltage Eo = Q/C, where C

is capacitance in
farads between the electrodes and C = εa/t where ε is the absolute permittivity.

The voltage sensitivity = g = d/ε in volt meter per newton can be obtained as:
• d (pC/N) g(volt.m/N ε(pf/m)
Quartz 2.25 0.055 4.5
Barium- 78-130 0.012 1700
Titanate

Advantages:
- Compactness
- High sensitivity
- High frequency range
Limit Switches and Proximity
Sensors
 Limit Switches
A typical limit switch consists of a switch body and an operating
head. The switch body includes electrical contacts to energize and
de-energize a circuit. The operating head incorporates some type of
lever arm or plunger, referred to as an actuator.
Example Mechanical Limit
Switches
• Limit switch
– Is activated by physical contact with some movable object
– Ex: a car door switch

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 When to Use Mechanical Limit
Switches

• Where physical contact is possible

• Where definitive position is required
• In operation-critical or safety-critical situations
• Where environment conditions preclude the
use of optical or inductive sensors
 Applications and Use of Limit Switches
• Easy to integrate into machinery of all types
• Requires contact (thus wear)
• Range of voltages: DC 0-1000V, AC, etc.
• Very robust (explosion proof if required)
• Usually used as:
• Limit switch
• Presence/absence indicator
• Door closed/open
Places You Find LimitSwitches
 Proximity Sensors
• Widely used in general industrial automation
• Conveyor lines (counting, jam detection, etc)
• Machine tools (safety interlock, sequencing)
• Usually digital (on/off) sensors detecting the presence
or absence of an object
• Consist of:
• Sensor head: optical, inductive, capacitive
• Detector circuit
• Amplifier
• Output circuit: TTL, solid state relay
 Proximity sensors
1- Capacitive proximity sensors
The capacitance for a parallel plate capacitor is given by:

where ε is the relative permittivity,

A is the area of the plates in square centimeters,
d is the separation between the two plates in centimeters.

If the two parallel plates move relative to each other, the distance and area of the plates
affecting the capacitance is altered, and a corresponding change in the capacitance
occurs. The relationship between capacitance and mechanical displacement for
a given system can be determined. Capacitive transducer systems have been used
to measure displacements in the micrometer range.
2- Inductive proximity sensors
3- Photoelectric proximity sensors

Photoelectric proximity sensor configurations: (a) diffuse reflector; (b) retro

reflector; (c) through beam, (d) fixed focus, and (e) fiber optics.
 When to Use an Optical Proximity
Sensor
• Non-contact, no moving parts, small.
• Fast switching, no switch bounce.
• Insensitive to vibration and shock
• Many configurations available
• Alignment always required
• Can be blinded by ambient light conditions (welding
for example)
• Requires clean, dust and water free, environment
4- Ultrasound Proximity Sensors
 When to Use Ultrasonic Sensors

• Provide range data directly:

• Level monitoring of solid and liquids
• Approach warning (collisions)
• Can (usually) work in heavy dust and water
• Ambient noise is potentially an issue

http://www.automationsensors.com/
Comparison Between Proximity Sensors
 Temperature Sensors

• Semiconductor devices ( Integrated-Circuit

Temperature Sensors)
• Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
• Thermistors
• Bimetallic Sensor
• Thermocouples
• Liquid Expansion Thermometer
• Gas Thermometer
 Semiconductor devices ( Integrated-Circuit
Temperature Sensors )
Temperature sensitive voltage source (LM35CZ )

• LM35 produces an output that is proportional to Celsius temperature

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• The accuracy of this device is 1 oC
• The output voltage of the LM35 is directly proportional to °C, that is,
Vout = 10 mV/°C

• The output is adjusted to 0 V to 0 oC

• Temperatures below zero provide a negative output voltage
• Some ICs, such as the LM135, provide an output that is in degrees kelvin.
o
k = oC+273.15 o
C = (oF-32)/1.8
• Its disadvantage is voltage drop over long connecting wires

Temperature sensitive current source (AD590J)

• No voltage drop over long connecting wires
• It produces current of 1 A / 1 ok

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 Resistance Temperature Detectors

• Linear: R = Ro (1 + α ΔT)
• Sensitivity :For platinum, is typically on the order of 0.004/oC, and for
nickel a typical value is 0.005/oC
• Response Time In general, RTD has a response time of 0.5 to 5 seconds or
more. The slowness of response is due principally to the slowness of
thermal conductivity in bringing the device into thermal equilibrium with
its environment.
• Signal Conditioning In view of the very small fractional changes of
resis-tance with temperature (0.4%), the RTD is generally used in a bridge
circuit
• Dissipation Constant Because the RTD is a resistance, there is an I2 R power
dissipated by the device itself that causes a slight heating effect, a self-heating.

P
D. T =- ------
PD
• D T = temperature rise because of self-heating in °C
• P = power dissipated in the RTD from the circuit in W
• PD = dissipation constant of the RTD in W/°C. A 25-m W/0C dissipation
constant shows that if I2 R power losses in the RTD equal 25 mW, then the
RTD will be heated by 1°C.
 Thermistors
• Construction Because the thermistor is a bulk semiconductor, it can be fabricated in
many forms. Thus, common forms include discs, beads, and rods, varying in size from a
bead 1 mm in diameter to a disc several centimeters in diameter and several centimeters
thick.
• Sensitivity The sensitivity of the thermistors is a significant factor in their application.
Changes in resistance of 10% per °C are not uncommon
• Range, there are three range limitation effects: (1) melting or deterioration of the
semiconductor, (2) deterioration of encapsulation material, and (3) insensitivity at
higher temperatures.
• The semiconductor material may melt or otherwise deteriorate as the tempera-ture is
raised. This condition generally limits the upper temperature to less than 300°C.
Because of high sensitivity, the lower limit is -50oC to -l00oC.
• Response Time ,for the smallest bead thermistors in an oil bath (good thermal contact),
a response of 0.5 second is typical. The same thermistor in still air will respond with a
typical response time of 10 seconds. Large disc or rod thermistors may have response
times of 10 seconds or more, even with good thermal contact.
• Highly non linear

• Signal Conditioning Because a thermistor exhibits such a large change in resistance

with temperature, there are many possible circuit applications. In many cases, however, a
bridge circuit is used because the nonlinear features of the thermis-tor make its use
difficult as an actual measurement device.
Thermistor Temperature Sensors
 Bimetallic Strip

• Usually used for On-Off control

 Thermocouples
• Seebeck Effect
• Construction A thermocouple is simply a welded or even twisted junction between
two metals, and in many cases, that is the construc-tion. There are cases, however,
where the TC is sheathed in a protective covering or even sealed in glass to protect
the unit from a hostile environment. The size of the TC wire is determined by the
application and can range from #10 wire in rugged environments to fine #30 A WG
wires or even 0.02-mm microwire in refined biological measurements of
temperature.
 TABLE Standard thermocouples

Type Materials Normal Range

J Iron-constantan -190°C to 760°C

T Copper-constantan - 200°C to 371°C
K Chromel-alumel -190°C to 1260°C
E Chromel-constantan -100°C to 1260°C
S 90% platinum + 10% rhodium-platinum 0°C to 1482°C
R 87% platinum + 13% rhodium-platinum 0°C to 1482°C

• First material is more positive when the measurement temperature is more than the reference
tem-perature.
• Constantan, chromel, and alumel are registered trade names of alloys.
• Sensitivity A review of the tables shows that the range of thermocouple
voltages is typically less than 100 mV. The actual sensitivity strongly
depends on the type of signal conditioning employed and on the TC itself.
• Type J: 0.05 mV/ oC (typical)
• Type R: 0.006 mV/ oC (typical)
• Time Response Thermocouple time response is simply related to the size
of the wire and any protective material used with the sensor. Large,
industrial TCs using thick wire or encased in stainless steel sheathing may
have time constants as high as 10 to 20 seconds. On the other hand, a TC
made from very small-gauge wire can have a time constant as small as
10 to 20 ms. Often, the time constant is specified under conditions of good
thermal contact and poor thermal contact as well, so that you can account
for the environment.

• Signal Conditioning The key element in the use of thermocouples is that

the output voltage is very small, typically less than 50 mV. This means that
consider-able amplification will be necessary for practical application. In
addition, the small signal levels make the devices susceptible to electrical
noise. In most cases the thermocouple is used with a high-gain differential
amplifier.
• Reference Compensation A problem with the practical use of
thermo-couples is the necessity of knowing the reference temperature. The
following techniques are employed for reference junction compensation:

• 1. Controlled temperature reference block In some cases, particularly when

many thermocouples are in use, extension wires bring all reference
junctions to a temperature-controlled box in the control room. Then, a local
control system maintains this box at a precisely controlled temperature so
that the reference is regulated. Readouts of temperature from the TC
voltage take into account this known reference temperature.

• 2. Software reference correction In computer-based measurement systems,

the reference junction temperature can be measured by a precision
thermis-tor or another IC temperature sensor and provided as an input to
the computer. Software routines then can provide necessary corrections to
the thermocouple temperature signal that is also an input to the computer.
• 3. Reference compensation circuits The modern approach to reference
correction is supplied by specialized integrated circuits (ICs) that add or
sub-tract the correction factor directly to the TC output. These ICs, which
are called cold junction compensators or ice point compensators, are
actually temperature sensors themselves that measure the reference
junction temperature. The ICs include circuitry that provides a scaled
correction voltage, depending on the type ofTC being used. Figure 4.11
shows a block diagram of how the compensator is used. The actual
reference junctions are at the connection to the IC, so the IC temperature
is the reference temperature
• Susceptibility to electrical noise:
The voltages generated generally are less than 50 m V, and often are only 2 or 3 millivolts,
and in the industrial environment it is common to have hundreds of millivolts of electrical
noise generated by large electrical machines in any electrical system. Second, a thermocouple
constitutes an excellent antenna for pickup of noise from electromagnetic radiation in the
radio, TV, and microwave bands. In short, a bare thermocouple may have many times more
noise than temperature signal at a given time.
• To use thermocouples effectively in industry, a number of noise reduction techniques are
employed. The following three are the most popular.
• 1. The extension or lead wires from the thermocouple to the reference junction or
measurement system are twisted and then wrapped with a grounded foil sheath.
• 2. The measurement junction itself is grounded at the point of measurement. The grounding
is typically to the inside of the stainless steel sheath that covers the actual thermocouple.
• 3. An instrumentation amplifier that has excellent common mode rejection is employed for
measurement.
 Liquid-Level Sensors
• Discrete-level detectors
To determine that a liquid has reached certain level
• Continuous-Level Detector
 Flow Sensors

1- Restriction flow sensors (Δp is measured)

Orifice meter

Venturi Pitot tube

2- Obstruction flow sensors ( displacement or velocity is
measured)

Tapered tube and float variable area Turbine flow meter

3- Magnetic flow meter
• Hall Effect
The Ultrasonic Flowmeter
 Laser Doppler
• Fluid particles scatter the beam and cause shift which is
proportional to fluid velocity
• Advantages
- Noninvasive
- High accuracy, 0.2 %
- Measure instantaneous velocity
- Used in aircraft, boundary layer, jet propulsion, biological
areas
• Disadvantages
- Expensive
- Fluid should contains enough particles for scattering
 Hot Wire Anenometer
• It uses 5 μm diam. Platinum-tangsten wire.
• The wire is heated by passing current to it.
• Convective heat transfer coefficient is proportional to
fluid velocity and its resistance changes.
• Signal conditioning: Wheatstone bridge.

• Used for measuring:

- Liquid and gases at high speed
- Non-conductive liquids at low speed
- Mean and fluctuating velocities
- Clean fluid
 Pressure Sensors
• For pressure > 1 atm:
- Pressure difference is measured as a displacement
by using bourdon tube, bellows, diaphragm.
Displacement is converted to electric signal by
potentiometer or LVDT.
- Piezoelectric tansducer.

• For pressure < 1 atm: Heated filament is placed

in the low pressure environment. Filament
temperature is proportional to the gas pressure.
A calibrated thermocouple can be used.
 Pressure Sensors
• Bourdon Tube
• Available in pressure range of 30-100 000 psi (2- 6000 atm)
• Bellows or Diaphragms
• More sensitive than Bourdon tube in the low pressure range
of 0- 30 psi
• Semiconductor Sensors
These sensors have the advantage of
“no moving parts” and
are available in pressure ranges
from 0-1.5 psi to 0-5000 psi.