Advanced Automotive

Electronics
Automotive Sensors and Actuators
 Contents
• Automotive Fundamentals
• Air / Fuel Systems
• Sensors
• Actuators
• Exhaust After Treatment Systems
• Electronic Engine Control
• Vehicle Motion Control
• Automotive Instrumentation
• Integrated Body
• Automotive Diagnostics
• Future Automotive Electronics Systems
 Introduction to Automotive Electronics
• Opening & closing of the doors
• Button start
• Battery run vehicle
• Radio stations / CD player
• AC / fan / heater
• Antilock braking system
• Reverse music
• Driver less vehicle
 Introduction to Automotive Electronics
• Fuel level indicator / alarm to fill
• Turn indicator
• Speed indicator
• Pressure indicator
• Map display
• Route indicator
 Introduction to Automotive Electronics
• Electronic Engine Control
– For minimizing exhaust emission
– & economical use of fuel
• Instrumentation
– For measuring performance
– Determining on-board system malfunctions
• Safety & convenience

• Study of Electronics in Automobiles

 Sensors
Physical variable
to be measured

Sensor Electronic Display

Signal Processing

Measurement Application
 Sensors & Actuators
Command
input

Sensor Electronic actuator

Signal Processing

Plant

Control Application
 Sensor
• Sensor used for measurement of important plant
variables

• Provides electrical signal equivalent to physical

variable under measurement

• Output suitable for further processing on a digital

computer / microcontroller

• ….Syllabus for list of sensors

 Actuator
• Actuator electrically operated device

• Regulates inputs to the plant

• Controls output of the plant

• Fuel injector… fuel metering … ignition actuator…

 Sensors & Actuators
• May not be available what exactly is required
• Special signal processing subsystem / interface
circuit is required
Usage
 Types of Sensors
Digital Vs. Analog Sensors
• Digital sensors – The signal produced or reflected by the sensor is binary
• Analog sensors – The signal produced by the sensor is continuous and proportional
to the measurand

Null and Deflection Methods

• Deflection – The signal produces some physical (deflection) effect closely related to
the measured quantity

• Null – The signal produced by the sensor is counteracted to minimize the deflection
– That opposing effect necessary to maintain a zero deflection should be proportional
to the signal of the measurand
 Sensor Characteristics
Static characteristics
– The properties of the system after all transient effects have settled to their
final or steady state
– Accuracy
– Discrimination
– Precision
– Errors
– Drift
– Sensitivity
– Linearity
– Hysteresis (backslash)
 Dynamic characteristics
•The properties of the system transient
response to an input

– Zero order systems

– First order systems
– Second order systems
 Sensor Fundamentals
• Range
– Every sensor is designed to work over a specified range
– The design ranges are usually fixed, and if exceeded, result in permanent
damage to or destruction of a sensor

• Sensitivity
– Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in output of the sensor per
unit change in the parameter being measured
– The factor may be constant over the range of the sensor (linear), or it may
vary (nonlinear).
 Sensor Fundamentals
• Resolution – Resolution is defined as the smallest change that can be detected by a
sensor

• Response – The time taken by a sensor to approach its true output when subjected
to a step input is sometimes referred to as its response time.

• Linearity – The most convenient sensor to use is one with a linear transfer function.
That is an output that is directly proportional to input over its entire range, so that the
slope of a graph of output versus input describes a straight line.

• Hysteresis – Hysteresis refers to the characteristic that a transducer has in being

unable to repeat faithfully, in the opposite direction of operation, the data that have
been recorded in one direction
 Sensor Fundamentals
• Full Scale Output
– Full scale output (FSO) is the algebraic difference between the electrical
output signals measured with maximum input stimulus and the lowest input
stimulus applied. This must include all deviations from the ideal transfer
function

• Accuracy
– A very important characteristic of a sensor is accuracy which really means
inaccuracy. Inaccuracy is measured as a ratio of the highest deviation of a
value represented by the sensor to the ideal value. It may be represented in
terms of measured value
 Accuracy and Errors
• Systematic errors
• Result from a variety of factors
• Interfering or modifying variables (i.e., temperature)
• Drift (i.e., changes in chemical structure or mechanical stresses)
• The measurement process changes the measurand (i.e., loading errors)
• The transmission process changes the signal (i.e., attenuation)
• Human observers (i.e., parallax errors)
• Systematic errors can be corrected with COMPENSATION methods (i.e.,
feedback, filtering)
 Accuracy and Errors
• Random errors
– Also called NOISE: a signal that carries no information
– True random errors (white noise) follow a Gaussian distribution
– Sources of randomness:
– Repeatability of the measurand itself (i.e., height of a rough surface)
– Environmental noise (i.e., background noise picked by a microphone)
– Transmission noise (i.e., 60Hz hum)
– Signal to noise ratio (SNR) should be >>1
– With knowledge of the signal characteristics it may be possible to interpret
a signal with a low SNR (i.e., understanding speech in a loud environment
 Sensors
1. Oxygen Sensor
2. Throttle Position Sensor (TPS)
3. Engine Crankshaft Angular Position Sensor (CKP)
4. Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor
5. Engine Speed Sensor
6. Ignition Timing Sensor
7. Hall Effect Position Sensor
8. Shielded Field Sensor
9. Optical Crankshaft Position Sensor
10. Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP)
11. Strain Gauge and Capacitor Capsule
12. Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor (ECT)
13. Intake Air Temperature Sensor (IAT)
14. Knock Sensor
15. Airflow Rate Sensor
16. Throttle Angle Sensor
Typical Electronic Engine Control System

Computing device
 Airflow Rate Sensor
• Mass Air Flow rate (MAF)
• Purpose
– Measurement of the mass flow rate of air (Rm) into
the engine
• Why required
– Monitoring the operation of an electronically
controlled engine to ensure Govt. regulated exhaust
emission rate
• Generates a continuous signal that varies nearly
linearly with true mass air flow Rm
 Airflow Rate Sensor
• A hot-film structure mounted on a substrate
– Hot wire
• To start with, the film element is electrically
heated to a constant temperature above that of
the inlet air
• The hot-film element is incorporated in a
Wheatstone bridge circuit
• Honeycomb flow straightener at the air inlet
side is smoothes the air flow
Airflow Rate Sensor
• With no air flow
– R1 = R3 and R2 =RHW
• Voltage va and vb are
equal
– The bridge is balanced
• As air flows across the
hot film, heat is carried
away from the film by
the moving air.
 Airflow Rate Sensor
• The amount of heat carried away proportional to the
mass flow rate of the air
• Heat loss leads to change in resistance of the film
• Unbalances the bridge circuit
• Produces an input voltage to the amplifier
• The output of the amplifier is connected to the bridge
circuit and provides the power for this circuit.
• The amplified voltage changes the resistance in such a
way as to maintain a fixed hot-film temperature relative
to the inlet temperature.
Airflow Rate Sensor

Digitizing the rate of flow of air

 Airflow Rate Sensor
• B: Binary count
• f: frequency of v to f
• t: duration of closure of the switch
• B=?
• B=ft
• No need for ADC… v to f is used instead

• After the engine controller reads the count, the

counter is reset to zero to be ready for the next
sample.
Airflow Rate Sensor

Transfer characteristics of sensor

 Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP)
• Indirect method of measuring mass air flow

• Pressure is measured in terms of displacement

of diaphragm deflected by manifold pressure

• One example: Strain gauge MAP sensor

Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP)

• Silicon chip 3 mm2.

• Along outer edges,
approx 250
micrometers thick
• Center area is only
25 micrometers
thick and forms a
diaphragm
Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP)

The edge of the chip is sealed to a pyrex plate under vacuum, thereby
forming a vacuum chamber between the plate and the center
area of the silicon chip.
Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP)

• A set of sensing resistors

formed by doping impurity
into the silicon.
• External connections to
these resistors are made
through wires
• Manifold pressure applied
to the diaphragm causes it
to deflect.
 Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP)
• Piezoresistivity: The resistance of the sensing
resistors changes in proportion to the applied
manifold pressure
– Fractional change in length
• The strain induced in each resistor is proportional
to the diaphragm deflection, which, in turn, is
proportional to the pressure on the outside
surface of the diaphragm.
• Explain how Wheatstone bridge is used to
measure the pressure…
 Engine Crankshaft Angular Position Sensor
(CKP)
• Measurement of angular position i.e., velocity (RPM) of shafts
• Highly desirable that measurement be made without any
mechanical contact with the rotating shaft.
• The crankshaft angular position is the angle between the reference
line and the mark on the flywheel.
• Principle: magnetic or optical phenomena as the physical basis.
– Magnetic means of such measurements are generally preferred in engine
applications since they are unaffected by oil, dirt, or other contaminants.
 Engine Crankshaft Angular Position Sensor
(CKP)
• Angular position of zero degrees: Flywheel is rotated so that the
mark is directly on the reference line.
– Corresponds to the cylinder No. 1 at TDC (top dead center).
• As the crankshaft rotates, this angle increases from zero to 3600 ….
One full rotation
• One complete engine cycle corresponds to the crankshaft angular
position going from zero to 720°.
– One full engine cycle from intake through exhaust requires two complete
revolutions of the crankshaft.

• This information is used by the electronic engine controller to set

ignition timing and to set the fuel injector pulse timing.
Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor
Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor
Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor
The magnetic permeability of
steel >> than air
The reluctance of steel is much
lower than air.

Tabs of the steel disk when

located between the pole
pieces of the magnet, gap
between the pole pieces is
filled by the steel.
When tab is not between the
magnet pole pieces, the gap is
filled by air only.
Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor

When gap is filled by the steel.

the “flow” of magnetic flux
increases ..Small reluctance
When gap is filled by air only.
magnetic flux is relatively small.
.High-reluctance

The position of the tab,

depends on the crankshaft
angular position….
 Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor
• The change in magnetic flux induces a voltage, Vo, in the sensing
coil that is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux.
• Since the magnetic flux must be changing to induce a voltage in the
sensing coil, its output voltage is zero whenever the engine is not
running
 Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor

Output Voltage Waveform from the Magnetic Reluctance CKP Sensor Coil
 Engine Speed Sensor
• The position sensor for measuring engine speed: As many no. of
tabs will pass through the sensing coil once for each crankshaft
revolution.
• Count the pulses of voltage from the sensing coil in one minute (or
less and adjust calculations) and divide by no. of tabs, to find the
engine speed in revolutions per minute (RPM).
• How many tabs…
• If the disk is mounted on the crankshaft, then the number of tabs
for this crankshaft position sensor always will be half the number
of cylinders because it takes two crankshaft rotations for a
complete engine cycle.
 Ignition Timing Sensor
• Use of reluctance sensor…
 Hall Effect Position Sensor
• Output of the magnetic reluctance sensor is zero when the engine
isn’t running.
– Main disadvantage
• Hall effect: Generation of a voltage dependent on a magnetic field
• Small, thin flat slab of semiconductor material is kept in magnetic
field.
• Current I, is passed through it by means of an external circuit
• A voltage is developed across the slab perpendicular to the
direction of current flow and perpendicular to the direction of
magnetic flux.
• This voltage is proportional to both the current and magnetic flux
density that flows through the slab.
Hall Effect Position Sensor
• semiconductor
material in
magnetic field.
• Current passed
through it
• Voltage developed
across the slab
– perpendicular to
the direction of
current and
perpendicular to
the direction of
magnetic flux.
Hall Effect Position Sensor

Voltage across the slab

 Hall Effect Position Sensor
• Electron moving through a
magnetic field, experiences
Lorentz force
– Proportional to the electron
velocity and the strength of the
magnetic flux
– The direction of force is
perpendicular to the direction of
electron movement
• Electrons deflected toward one
electrode…negative than the
With constant I, voltage Vo is other electrode
proportional to the strength of – Voltage exists between the
the magnetic flux density electrodes
Determined by the position of the tabs.
Shielded Field Sensor
 Optical Crankshaft Position Sensor

The output pulse level: standard transistor logic levels of 2.4 V for
the high level and 0.2 V for the low level.
 Throttle Angle Sensor
• Measurement of the instantaneous throttle angle is important for
control purposes.

• The throttle plate

– Linked mechanically to the accelerator pedal
– When the accelerator pedal is depressed
– Causes the throttle plate angle to increase
– Allows more air to enter the engine
– Increasing engine power.
 Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor (ECT)
• Thermistor
• A thermistor is made of semiconductor material whose resistance
varies inversely with temperature. For example, at –40°C a typical
coolant sensor has a resistance of 100,000 ohms. The resistance
decreases to about 70,000 ohms at 130°C.
• Mounted in a housing designed to be inserted in the coolant
stream.
 Airflow Rate Sensor
• Oxygen Sensor
• Throttle Position Sensor (TPS)
• Engine Crankshaft Angular Position Sensor (CKP)
• Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor
• Engine Speed Sensor
• Ignition Timing Sensor
• Hall Effect Position Sensor
• Shielded Field Sensor
• Optical Crankshaft Position Sensor
• Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP)
• Strain Gauge and Capacitor Capsule
• Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor (ECT)
• Intake Air Temperature Sensor (IAT)
• Knock Sensor
• Throttle Angle Sensor
 Sensors for Feed back Control
• Feedback control for fuel supply
• Based on maintaining the air/fuel ratio at stoichiometry (i.e.,
14.7:1).
• The primary sensor for fuel control is the exhaust gas oxygen
sensor.
• Amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas is used as an indirect
measurement of the air/fuel ratio. ...Exhaust Gas Oxygen (EGO)
sensor or lambda sensor
• λ = (air/fuel) / (air/fuel at stoichiometry)
• λ > 1 fuel is less than air……Air fuel mixture is lean
• λ < 1 fuel is more than air…. Air fuel mixture is rich
• Rich.. In fuel content
 EGO Sensor
• Two types of EGO sensors based on the use of active oxides
– zirconium dioxide (ZrO2)
– titanium dioxide (TiO2)

• A voltage is generated across the oxide material that depends on

the exhaust gas oxygen concentration
– In turn depends on the engine air/fuel ratio.
EGO Sensor
• In ZrO2 EGO sensor ZrO2
sandwiched between two
platinum electrodes.

• One electrode is exposed to

exhaust gas

• and the other is exposed to

normal air for reference.
 EGO Sensor
• Sensor operation is based on the distribution of oxygen ions.
– Oxygen ions have two excess electrons

• The ZrO2 has a tendency to attract the oxygen ions, which

accumulate on the ZrO2 surface just inside the platinum
electrodes.

• The platinum plate on the air reference side of the ZrO2 is

exposed to a much higher concentration of oxygen ions than the
exhaust gas side.
 EGO Sensor
• The air reference side becomes electrically more negative than
the exhaust gas side

• Creates an electric field exists across the ZrO2 material and a

voltage

• The polarity of this voltage is positive on the exhaust gas side and
negative on the air reference side of the ZrO2.

• The magnitude of this voltage depends on the concentration of

oxygen in the exhaust gas and on the sensor temperature.
 EGO Sensor
• The quantity of oxygen in the exhaust gas = oxygen partial
pressure.
– It is that proportion of the total exhaust gas pressure due to the quantity of
oxygen.

• The exhaust gas oxygen partial pressure for a rich mixture varies
over the range of 10–16 to 10–32 of atmospheric pressure.

• Relatively low oxygen concentration and a higher EGO sensor

output.

• For a fully warmed EGO sensor the output voltage is about 1V for a
rich mixture
 EGO Sensor
• The oxygen partial pressure for a lean mixture is roughly 10–2
atmosphere.

• Exhaust gas oxygen concentration is relatively high

• Difference between exhaust gas and atmospheric oxygen

concentrations is lower

• Relatively low EGO sensor output voltage.

• For a fully warmed EGO sensor the output voltage is about 0.1V for
a lean mixture.
 Desirable EGO Characteristics
• Abrupt change in voltage at stoichiometry**

• Rapid switching of output voltage in response to exhaust gas

oxygen changes

• Large difference in sensor output voltage between rich and lean

mixture conditions

• Stable voltages with respect to exhaust temperature

** - Stoichiometry is a section of chemistry that involves using

relationships between reactants and/or products in a chemical
reaction to determine desired quantitative data.
In Greek, stoikhein means element and metron means measure,
so stoichiometry literally translated means the measure of elements
Switching Characteristics of EGO
Sensor o/p doesn’t change at
exactly the same point for
increasing air/fuel ratio as
for decreasing air/fuel ratio.
This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
 Switching Characteristics of EGO
• Temperature affects on switching times and output voltage:
• Time per division is 100ms for the display at 350°C and 50ms at
800°C.
• This means that the switching times are roughly 0.1 second at
350°C, whereas at 800°C they are about 0.05 second.
• o/p voltage is less in the case of 800°C
 Switching Characteristics of EGO
• The EGO sensor should not be used for control at temperatures
below about 300°C because the difference between rich and lean
voltages decreases rapidly with temperature in this region.
 Knock Sensors
• Knock described generally as a rapid rise in cylinder pressure
during combustion. It does not occur normally, but only under
special conditions.

• It occurs most commonly

– with high manifold pressure
– and excessive spark advance.

• Excessive knock may damage engine

• The problem of detecting knock is complicated by the presence of

other vibrations and noises in the engine.
 Knock Sensors
• Magnetostriction is a phenomenon whereby the magnetic
properties of a material depend on stress (due to an applied force).

• Magnetostrictive rods are kept in a magnetic field

• Change the flux field in the coil due to knock-induced forces

produces a voltage change in the coil.
 Actuator
• Actuator electrically operated device

• Regulates inputs to the plant

• Controls output of the plant

• Fuel injector… fuel metering … ignition actuator…

 Inputs to Controller
• A variable is a quantity that changes as the engine
operates.
• Throttle position sensor
• Mass air flow rate
• Engine temperature (coolant temperature)
• Engine speed and position
• Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve position
• Exhaust gas oxygen & so on
 Outputs from Controller
• Fuel metering control

• Ignition control

• Ignition timing

• Exhaust gas recirculation control & so on

 Actuator
• In general, an actuator is a device that receives an
electrical input (e.g., from the engine controller)
and produces a mechanical or thermal (or other)
output.
• Examples…
– various types of electric motors
– Solenoids
• Relatively simple and inexpensive
– piezoelectric force generators
Solenoid
• Consists of a fixed steel (i.e.,
ferromagnetic) frame with a coil
wound around the steel frame
forming a powerful electromagnet.

• And a movable steel element held

by a spring

• Positions are such that there is a

gap between the end of the
movable element and the opening
in the frame.
Solenoid
• Current passed through the coil
creates a magnetic field

• Tends to pull the movable

element toward the steel frame.

• Once sufficient to overcome the

force at the spring holding the
movable element, it begins to
move towards the frame.
Solenoid
• Reduced gap
– Increases strength of the magnetic
field.
– Increases the movable element to
accelerate toward the frame until it
reaches certain stop.
• rest position (as held by the spring)
• or against the mechanical stop.

• This essentially forms mechanical

switching action
 Fuel Injector
• A solenoid-operated valve.
• The valve opens / closes to permit / block fuel flow to
the engine.

• The valve is attached to the movable element of the

solenoid and is switched by the solenoid activation

• With no current flowing

– The movable element is held down against the stop, covers the
aperture or nozzle.
– Fuel is blocked from flowing from the pressurized fuel chamber
into the aperture.
 Fuel Injector
• With current flowing,
– The movable element is switched upward, the
aperture is exposed, and fuel (under pressure) sprays
through this aperture.
– The fuel flow rate is constant
• Given regulated fuel pressure & nozzle geometry
• Amount of fuel injected into the air stream proportional to
the time the valve is open

• The control current that operates the fuel injector

is pulsed on and off to deliver precise quantities
of fuel.
Fuel Injector
Fuel Injector Signal
Control voltage operating the
fuel injector is a pulse train

33%

66%
 Ignition System
• A combination of the spark plug, the ignition coil, and driver
electronic circuits

• It receives electrical signal from the engine controller and outputs

a spark that ignites the mixture

• The primary circuit of the coil is connected to the battery and

through a power transistor to ground. The coil secondary S is
connected to one or more spark plugs
Ignition System
 Ignition System
• The electronic controller supplies base current to the power
transistor
– …saturation. closed switch.
– A relatively large current flows through the primary windings of the coil
creating a relatively large magnetic field that is linked to the secondary coil.

• At the appropriate time for ignition the controller switches off the
base current
– Transistor does not conduct
– The primary current drops to zero very quickly, causing the magnetic field
strength to drop rapidly
 Ignition System
• The very rapid drop in the magnetic field generates a very high
voltage (30,000 to 50,000 volts)

• Creates the spark across the spark plug electrodes, igniting the
mixture
– initiating the power stroke for the engine
Ignition System
Relays
 DC Motors
• Permanent magnet motors are commonly used in automobiles as they are
versatile
– The rotary speed (RPM) of the motor which is usually high is suitably
modified through gearing down (increase in torque) or other mechanisms to
get the desired rotary or linear motion

• For applications such as power electric steering, the options available are :
– Brushless DC (BLDC)
– Switched-reluctance motors (SRM)
– The BLDC motor has permanent magnets that are susceptible to high
temperature complications (automotive temperatures -40 to 125°C.)
 DC Motors
Typical Specifications of a DC Motor:
– Voltage: 12V DC
– No load speed: 9000r/min± 10%
– No load current: <= 4A
– Load: 7650r/min± 10%, 0.226Nm, <= 19A
• – Rotation direction: clockwise
 DC Motors
Some of the automotive applications:
– Windscreen and head light washers & wipers
– Power windows and mirrors
– Fuel pumps
– Head light lifts
– Electronic Parking Brake (EPB)
– Ventilation fans and so on

• One of the draw backs of a DC motor is non-availability of direct feedback. If

required, one has to use variable resistor sensor to get the necessary
feedback
DC Motors
 DC Motors
Windows Motors

• Windows Motors

Cable Window Lift Systems

 Actuators for climate control
Systems

EPB Actuator

Actuators for Locking Systems

 Stepper Motors
Stepping motors:

– Permanent magnet Type

• Permanent magnet motors usually have two independent windings, with or without
center taps. Centertapped windings are used in unipolar permanent magnet motors.

– Variable reluctance Type

• Variable reluctance motors usually have three (sometimes four or five) windings,
with a common return.
• Stepper Motors
• 47
• • Angular resolution:
• – The coarsest motors typically turn 90
• degrees per step
• – High resolution permanent magnet motors
• are commonly able to handle 1.8 or even
• 0.72 degrees per step.
• – With an appropriate controller, most
• permanent magnet and hybrid motors can
• be run in half-steps, and some controllers
• can handle smaller fractional steps or
• microsteps
• • For both permanent magnet and variable
• reluctance stepping motors, if just one winding
• of the motor is energized, the rotor (under no
• load) will snap to a fixed angle and then hold
• that angle until the torque exceeds the holding
• torque of the motor, at which point, the rotor
• will turn, trying to hold at each successive
• equilibrium point
• • They do not have high starting torque
 Applications
– Idle speed air by-pass Digital Instrument Cluster
– Electronic Throttle control
– Speedometer display drives
– Adaptive Front-lighting (AFS) system, etc.

Adaptive Front-lighting System

 Piezo Actuators
• A piezo actuator enables response times of just a few Tenth of a millisecond.
• It consists of many crystal layers that expand by a few hundredths of millimeters when voltage
is applied.
• One of the automotive applications of the Piezo actuators is in Diesel Unit Injection Systems.

• Example:
– Stacked actuator
• Motion up to 100 Zm
• Maximum load 3500 N
• Very high stiffness up to 200 N/Zm
• Voltage -10...150V (multi-layer)
 Virtual Sensors for Automotive
Applications
• The virtual sensors can in principle be of two different types:
– High-precision and self-calibrating sensors, i.e. improved versions of the physical
sensors.

• The goal is either to achieve higher performance using existing sensors or to

reduce system cost by replacing expensive sensors by cheaper ones and using
sensor fusion to restore signal quality

– Soft sensors, i.e. sensors that have no direct physical counterpart among the sensors
used but can be created using intelligent software solutions.
Sensor Fusion in Vehicles
High-precision sensors are needed in order to meet the functional
specifications of many safety systems . But less accurate sensors are used due
to cost considerations. Hence, there is a huge potential for using sensor
fusion technology to create high precision virtual sensors at a very modest
cost.

• Sensor fusion also gives us tools to improve fault diagnosis of the physical
sensors
• By using sensor fusion, analytical redundancy is introduced, which can be
used to detect and isolate different sensor faults
• The redundancy also implies that the system can be reconfigured if one or
more sensors break down to achieve so-called degraded, or “limp home”,
functionality
• Classical designs rely on hardware redundancy to achieve these goals, which
is a very expensive solution compared to using sensor fusion software.