Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

Maritime University of the Caribbean

Nautical School of Venezuela
Stability II, B-OP

One hundred questions of book: Ship Stability for Masters and Mates

Teacher: Master Juan Hernández Deck Cadet: Nabori Otero,

28.013.354

Catia La Mar, February of 2024

 Questions

1. What is another name for the KG?

 Height of the ship’s Centre of gravity above the keel.

2. What is a hydrometer used for?

 A hydrometer is used to determine the density of liquids.

3. If the angle of heel is less than 10 degrees, what is the equation for GZ?
 GZ= GM x Sinθ.

4. What are the formula for TPC and MCTC for a ship in salt water?
 TPC:
𝑊𝑃𝐴
𝑇𝑃𝐶 (𝑠𝑤) =
97.56
 MCTC:
𝑊 𝑥 𝐺𝑀𝑙
𝑀𝐶𝑇 1𝑐𝑚 =
100 𝑥 𝐿

5. Give two formulae for the metacentre, KM.

A)
𝑲𝑴 = 𝑪𝑴 + 𝑲𝑪

B)
𝑲𝑴 = 𝑮𝑴 + 𝑲𝑮

6. How may free surface effects be reduced on a ship?

 Free surface effects may be reduced by filling any of the slack tank, lower
weights within the ship if possible, and also by using baffle plates (swash
bulkheads).

7. What is another name for KB?

 Height of the ship’s Centre of buoyancy above the keel.

8. List four requirements before an inclining experiment can take place.

1. There should be little or no wind, as this may influence the inclination of the
ship. If there is any wind the ship should be head on or stern on to it.
 2. The ship should be floating freely. This means that nothing outside the ship
should prevent her from listing freely. There should be no barges or lighters
alongside; mooring ropes should be slacked right down, and there should be
plenty of water under the ship to ensure that at no time during the experiment
will she touch the bottom.

3. Any loose weights within the ship should be removed or secured in place.

4. There must be no free surfaces within the ship. bilges should be dry. Boilers
and tanks should be completely full or empty.

5. Any person not directly involved with the experiment should be sent ashore.

6. The ship must be upright at the beggining of the experiment.

7. Anote of ‘weights on’ and ‘weights off’ to complete the ship each with a
VCG and LCG⊗

9. With the aid of a sketch, define LOA and LBP.

 LOA (Length Overall): It is the length from the foremost part of the bow to
the aftermost part of the stern.

 LBP or LPP (Length Between Perpendiculars): It is the length from the

crossing point of the bow and the waterline to the rudder shaft or center of
the rudder head.
10. What are cross curves of stability used for?

 Cross curves of stability are used to find the GZ value or KN value

(depending on the type curves, either GZ or KN) for any particular
displacement at each angle of heel.

11. What is the longitudinal centre of a waterplane called?

 It is called Longitudinal Centre of Flotation.

12. Adding a weight to a ship usually causes two changes. What are these
changes?

 Trim change and draft change.

13. What is Simpson’s First Rule for a parabolic shape with seven equally
spaced ordinates?

 Simpson’s first rule can be used to find areas when there are an odd
number of ordinates, if the common interval and the ordinates are
measured in meters, the area found will be in square meters. So when the
water-plane is divided into three separate areas and Simpson’s First Rule
is used to find each separate area, when the three areas are calculated,
we can use the following equation:
1 ℎ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑃 = (𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 4𝑑 + 2𝑒 + 4𝑓 + 𝑔)
2 3
This how the Simpson’s first rule should be used for a parabolic shape with
seven or more spaced ordinates.

14. What is KB for (a) box-shaped vessel and (b) triangular-shaped vessel?

A) For a box-shaped vessel, KB is half of the draft.

B) For a triangular-shaped vessel, KB is 2/3 of the draft

15. What are hydrostatic curves used for onboard a ship?

 They are used to determine various items of hydrostatic information for a

specific draft, some of those items are: TPC, MCTC, LCF (Longitudinal
Centre of Flotation) and LCB (Longitudinal Centre of buoyancy).

16. Using sketches, define the block, the waterplane and midship form
coefficients.
 Block coefficient: The block coefficient of a ship at any particular draft is
the ratio of the volume of displacement at that draft to the volume of a
rectangular block having the same overall length, breadth and depth.

 Waterplane coefficient: It is the ratio of the area of the water-plane to the

area of a rectangle having the same length and maximum breadth.

 Midship Form Coefficient: The midships coefficient to any draft is the ratio
of the transverse area of the midships section (Am) to a rectangle having
the same breadth and depths.
17. Sketch a statical stability curve and label six important points on it.

18. What are the minimum values allowed by D.Tp. for GZ and for transverse
GM?
 The righting lever GZ must not be less than 0,20m at an angle of heel equal
to or greater than 30 degrees. And the initial transverse metacentric height
GM shall not be less than 0.15 meters.

19. List three ways in which a ship’s end drafts may be changed.

The end draft may be changed due to:

 The amount of consumption and production of water.
  The amount of ballast charged.
 The amount of consumed gasoil.

20. GM is 0.45m. Radius of gyration is 7m. Estimate the natural rolling period
in seconds.

 Using the formula:

2𝐾
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 (sec) =
√𝐺𝑀

2(7)
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 (sec) = = 20,86 𝑠𝑒𝑐
√0,45

The natural rolling period will be 20,86 seconds approx.

21. What is a deadweight scale used for?

 It is used for the reading of Freeboard (F). Dwt in salt water and in fresh
water. Draft of ship (mean). Displacement in tonnes in salt water and
in fresh water. Tonnes per cm (TPC) in salt water and in fresh water.
Moment to Change Trim 1cm (MCTC).

22. What is the formula for bending stress in terms of M, I and Y?

 The formula for bending stress in terms of M, I and Y is:

𝑴
𝒇=
𝑰⁄
𝒀

23. Sketch a set of hydrostatic curves.

24. List three characteristics of an angle of loll.

1) It is always produced when a vessel has negative metacentric height (GM).

2) It is often caused by the influence of a large free surface effect or the loss
of stability due to damaged compartments.
3) It is different form list in that the vessel is not induced to heel to one side
or another by the distribution of weight.

25. Define (a) a moment and (b) a moment of inertia.

a) Moment: (also known as moment of force) is a measure of its tendency to

cause a body to rotate about a specific point or axis.

b) Moment of inertia: is a quantity that determines the torque needed for a

desired angular acceleration about a rotational axis

26. Sketch the first three curves for a set of ship’s strength curves.

1) Weight curve (Blue) – tonnes/m run or kg/m run.

2) Buoyancy curve (red) – either for hogging or sagging condition – tonnes/m

or kg/m run.

3) Load curve (yellow) – tonnes/m run or kg/m run.

27. What is the ‘theory of parallel axis’ formula?

𝐼𝑂𝑍 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝑦 2
28. What are the effects on a statical stability curve for increased breadth
and increased freeboard?

 With increased beam and increased freeboard the range of stability will
increase, due to the increment of the maximum GZ and the angle at
which occurs.

29. Sketch a metacentric diagram for a box-shaped vessel and a triangular

shaped vessel.

30. Block coefficient is 0.715. Midship coefficient is 0.988. Calculate

prismatic coefficient.

 Using the formula:

𝐶𝑏
𝐶𝑝 =
𝐶𝑚
 Where:
 Cp = Prismatic coefficient
 Cb = Block coefficient
 Cm = Midship coefficient
0,715
𝐶𝑝 = = 0,723
0,988

So, prismatic coefficient is 0,723.

31. Describe the use of Simpson’s Third Rule.

  This rule may be used to find the area between two consecutive
ordinates when three consecutive ordinates are known. The rule states
that the area between two consecutive ordinates is equal to five times
the first ordinate plus eight times the middle ordinate minus the
external ordinate, all multiplied by of the common interval.

32. What is the wall-sided formula for GZ?

1
 𝐺𝑍 = sin 𝜃 (𝐺𝑀 + 𝑇𝑎𝑛2 𝜃)
2

33. Define ‘permeability’. Give two examples relating to contents in a hold or

tank.
 Permeability is the percentage of volume of the space which may be
occupied by seawater if the space is flooded. The remaining volume
(not filled with seawater) being occupied by machinery cargo,
accommodation spaces, etc.

Examples:
The international bulk chemical code are typical values are:
 0,95 for voids, tanks, and living spaces.
 0,85 for machinery spaces.
 0,60 for spaces allocated to stores.
This implies that for damaged stability calculation purposes, machinery
spaces are only 15% full with machinery by volume (100% -85% = 15%).
34. Give the equations for BM, box-shaped vessels and triangular-shaped
vessels?

 Box-shaped vessels:
𝐵2
𝐵𝑀 =
12𝑑
 Triangular-shaped vessels:

𝐵2
𝐵𝑀 =
6𝑑
35. List three characteristics of an angle of list.

 It is induced the distribution of weight.

 It is often caused by flooding.
  It is present even when the vessel is stable and at equilibrium.

36. Sketch the shear force and bending moment curves. Show their
interrelation.

37. For a curve of seven equally spaced ordinates give Simpson’s Second
Rule.

 Simpson’s second rule can be used to find the area when the number of
ordinates is such that if one be subtracted from the number of ordinates the
remainder is divisible by 3.

Considering a water-plane area which has been divided up using seven half-
ordinates. The water-plane can be split into two sections, each section having
four ordinates.
So we can summary the formula in:

1 3
 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑃 = ℎ(𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 3𝑐 + 2𝑑 + 3𝑒 + 3𝑓 + 𝑔)
2 8

This is how the formula should be used.

38. What is the formula for pressure of water on a lockgate situation?

𝐹
 𝑃=
2 sin 𝛼

39. When a weight is lifted from a jetty by a ship’s derrick whereabouts does
its CG act?
 When the crane or the derrick of your ship carries a load on either side of the
centreline of the vessel at a certain height from the deck, there is a tendency
of the ship to heel in that direction (as a rule of the thumb). Something similar
happens as in the case of a simple pendulum where its weight is free to swing.
The weight shifts the centre of gravity, and the CG of the ship being at a
different position has to be previously accounted for so that it does not violate
the original intact stability of the ship.

40. Sketch a set of freeboard marks and label dimensions as specified by

D.Tp.
41. Sketch a displacement curve.

42. What is Morrish’s formula for VCB?

1 𝑑 𝑉
 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝐿𝑊𝐿) = ( + )
3 2 𝐴

43. For an inclining experiment how is tangent of the angle of list obtained?

 For an inclining experiment the tangent of the angle of list is obtained using
the next formula.

𝐺𝑀 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

tan 𝜃 = =
𝐺𝐺1 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

44. What do ‘a moment of statical stability’ and ‘dynamical stability’ mean?

 The moment of statical stability may be defined as the moment to return the
ship to the initial position when inclined by an external force.

Dynamical stability is defined as the work done in inclining a ship.

45. Show the range of stability on an S/S curve having a very small initial
negative GM.

46. Breadth is 45m. Draft is 15m. What is the increase in draft at a list of 2
degrees?

 Using the next formula:

1
𝐷= 𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑑 cos 𝜃
2
 Where:
 D= New Draft.
 b= Beam or Breadth.
 d= Old Draft.

1
𝐷= (45) sin 2° + (15) cos 2° = 15,77𝑚
2

The new draft is 15,77m.

𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝐷 − 𝑑

𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 15,77 − 15 = 0,77 𝑚

The increase in draft at a list of 2 degrees is 0,77m.

47. What is the formula for loss of GM due to free surface effects in a slack
tank?

𝐼𝑏3 𝑝 1
 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑥 𝑥
12 𝑊 𝑛2
48. For what purpose is the inclining experiment made on ships?

 The inclining experiment it’s performed on a ship to determine its

stability, lightship weight and the coordinates of its center of gravity.

49. What is the ‘true mean draft’ on a ship?

 “True mean draft” is the draft at the forward and aft perpendiculars.
The draft that is readied at the draft marks is apparent draft. At equal
trim apparent draft = true mean draft, as the vessel trims they start to
differ.

50. When drydocking a ship there is a virtual loss in GM. Give two formulas
for this loss.

𝑃 𝑥 𝐾𝑀
 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑀 =
𝑊
Or:
𝑃 𝑥 𝐾𝐺
 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑀 =
𝑊−𝑃

51. With Simpson’s Rules, give formulae for M of I about (a) amidships and
(b) centre line.

a) Amidships

𝑿̅
𝑴𝑰 = 𝒙 𝑪𝑰
∑𝟏
 Where:
 𝑴𝑰 = Moment function for each interval.
 ̅ = Distance of CF.
𝑿
 ∑ 𝟏 = Total of products of area.
 𝑪𝑰 = Common interval.

b) Centreline
2
𝐼𝐶𝐿 = 𝑥 𝐶𝐼 𝑥 𝛴1
9
 Where:
 𝑰𝑪𝑳 = moment of inertia about the centreline
 ∑ 𝟏 = total of products for 𝑰𝑪𝑳 .
 𝑪𝑰 = common interval.
52. Discuss the components involved for estimating an angle of heel whilst
turning a ship.

 GM.
 KM.
 KB.
 BM.
 Ship’s Weight.
 Radius of roll.

53. What is a ‘stiff ship’ and a ‘tender ship’. Give typical GM values.

 Stiff ship is defined as a vessel with a quick rapid rolling period.

(large GM 2m to 3m)

 Tender ship is defined as a vessel with a long slow lazy rolling period.
(small GM 0.16m to 0.20m)

54. With the lost buoyancy method, how does VCG change, after bilging has
occurred?

 The change in mean draft causes a change in the positions of the centre of
buoyancy and the initial metacentre. Hence KM is changed and, since KG is
constant, the GM will be changed.

55. Sketch a deadweight moment curve and label the important parts.
56. Sketch a bending stress diagram for a vessel that is in a sagging
condition.
57. What are ‘Bonjean curves’ and for what purpose are they used?

 Bonjean curves are drawn to give the immersed area of transverse sections
to any draft and may be used to determine the longitudinal distribution of
buoyancy.

58. Define ‘ship squat’ and ‘blockage factor’.

 Ship squat: It is a hydrodynamic phenomenon by which a vessel moving

quickly through shallow water creates an area of lowered pressure that
causes the ship to be closer to the seabed than would otherwise be expected.

 Blockage factor: Area of ship’s midship section divided by the cross-sectional

area of a river or canal.

59. Draw the line diagram for Murray’s method for maximum bending
moment.

60. What is the formula for shear stress for an H-girder?

 𝐹𝑥𝐴𝑥𝑌
 𝑞=
𝐼𝑥𝑡

61. What happens to cause a vessel to be in unstable equilibrium?

 When the gravity centre of the vessel G is above the metacenter The
GM becomes negative, this produce that the moment of statical
stability becomes a capsizing moment which will tend to heel the ship
still further, so we can say that the vessel is in unstable equilibrium.

This can occur due to

 Free surface effects.
 The amount of weights loaded.

62. What causes hogging in a vessel?

 Hogging is caused due to a negative bending moment this tends to convex

upwards bending of the beam.

63. Which letters signify the metacentric height?

 GM

64. Give typical Cb values for fully loaded VLCC, general cargo ships and
passenger liners.

 VLCC: 0,825.
 General cargo: 0,700.
 Passenger liners: 0,600.

65. What is the air draft and why is it important to know its value?

 Air draft is the vertical distance from the waterline to the highest point on the
ship. Is important to know its value because it indicates the ability of a ship to
pass under a bridge spanning a waterway that forms part of the intended
route.

66. What are Type ‘A’ ships, Type ‘B’ ships and ‘B-60’ ships.

 Type A: Are ships designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk, and in
which cargo tanks have only small access openings, closed by
watertight gasketed covers of steel or equivalent material.
  Type B: All ships that do not fall under the provisions for Type ‘A’
vessels. For these ships it may be based on: The vertical extent of
damage is equal to the depth of the ship. The penetration of damage
is not more than 1/5 of the breadth moulded (B). No main transverse
bulkhead is damaged. Ship’s KG is assessed for homogeneous
loading of cargo holds, and for 50% of the designed capacity of
consumable fluids and stores, etc.

 B-60: Are vessels which must have an LBP of between 100 and 150m.
It must survive the flooding of any single compartment (excluding the
machinery space). If greater than 150m LBP, the machinery space
must be considered as a floodable compartment. A typical ship type
for a Type (B-60) vessel is a bulk carrier.

67. What is synchronous rolling?

 It is when the ship will heel over and, in exceptional circumstances, be rolled
further over by the action of the wave.

68. What is DfT tabular freeboard?

 It is a value used to compare the freeboard of the ‘new design’ ship with the
freeboard value of a ‘standard ship’.

69. When dealing with subdivision of passenger vessels, what is the ‘margin
line’

 It is a line that is parallel to and 75mm below the bulkhead deck at side.

70. Sketch a set of freeboard marks for a timber ship.

 71. Describe how icing can affect the stability of a vessel.

With the effect of ice on a typical statical stability. The changes that take place
are:
 Decreased values for the GZ righting levels.
 Decreases in GMT value. GZmax value decreases.
 The range of stability decreases.
 GZ values and the range of stability will decrease even further if a wind is
present on the side of the ship with lesser transverse build-up of ice.

72. List six corrections made to a tabular freeboard to obtain an assigned

freeboard.

 Depth correction.
 Cb correction.
 Bow height correction.
 Superstructure correction.
 Sheer correction.
 Strength correction.

73. Give the formula for the amidships draft for a vessel with longitudinal
deflection.

𝑑𝐹𝑃 +(6 𝑥 𝑑𝑚 )+ 𝑑𝐴𝑃

 𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
8

74. Give the formula for the heaving period TH in seconds.

 𝑻𝒉 = 𝟐 𝒙 (𝒅 𝒙 𝑪𝑩 ⁄𝑪𝑾 )𝟎,𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄

75. In grain loading, what is the angle of repose?

 For most grain carrying ships, the deck edge will not be immersed at or
below 12°, so this 12° is normally the lesser of the two angles.

76. Sketch a GZ curve together with a wind lever curve (up to 40° angle of
heel).
77. Show on the sketch for the previous answer, the angle of heel due to
shift of grain.

78. Give a typical range for stowage rates for grain stowed in bulk.
  Stowage factor (volumen per unit weight of grain cargo) can be
represented by three values, 1.25, 1.50 and 1.75m3/tonnes.

79. When is a RD coefficient used on ships?

 It is used to determine the TPC value when the ship is on dock water,
is also used to know the new displacement when the ships goes form
salt water to another water of different density.

80. What is parametric rolling?

 Additional rolling of a ship, caused by having a bluff stern in interacting

with a sharp streamlined bow form.

 Parametric rolling is produced by pitching motions on vessels which

have very fine bowlines together with very wide and full stern contours.
One such ship type is the container ship.

81. What is the difference between an ullage and a sounding in a partially

filled tank?

 A Sounding is the vertical distance between the base of the tank and the
surface of the liquid.

 An Ullage is the vertical distance between the surface of the liquid and the
top of the ullage plug or top of the sounding pipe (A sounding pipe is a plastic
pipe of about 37mm of diameter, down which a steel sounding tape is
lowered).

82. What are sounding pads and why are they fitted in tanks.

 The sounding pads is a steel pad at the base of a sounding pipe. The steel
measuring tape is marked with white chalk and lowered into the tank of liquid
until the user hears a dull sound as the end weight makes contact with the
sounding pad. In another words, this is used to know that the steel measuring
is in the bottom of the tank.

83. What is a calibration Book used for?

 The purpose of a calibration book is to give volumes, displacements and

centre of gravity at pre-selected tank levels. This information is supplied by
the shipbuilder to each ship, for use by masters and mates.
84. Sketch a gunwale plate and indicate the placement of the freeboard Dk
mark?

85. Seasonal allowances depend on three criteria. What are these three
criteria?

 Time of year.
 Geographical location of the ship.
 LBP the ship, relative to a demarcation value of 100 m.

86. What is the factor of subdivision FS?

 Factor of subdivision (FS). This is the factor of subdivision. It can range in

value from 0.50 to a maximum of 1.00. The 1.00 value signifies that very few
passengers are being carried on board. The 0.50 value signifies that a very
large number of passengers are being carried on the ship.

By using the following formula, FS is used to determine the permisible length

ordinates.
𝐹𝐿 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝐹𝑆 = 𝑃𝐿 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

87. What is the criterion of service numeral Cs?

 Criterion of service numeral (Cs). If the ship’s subdivision length is greater
than 131 m, then CS will have as per regulations, a range of values of 23 to
123.

 The lower limit of 23 applies for Type ‘A’ ships (carrying liquid in bulk).
 The upper limit of 123 applies for Type ‘B’ ships.
 The regulations state CS is to be:
( )
𝐶𝑆 = 72 𝑀 + 2𝑃 ⁄𝑉
 Where:

 M = Total volume of machinery spaces below the margin line.

 P = Total volume of passenger space and crew space below the margin
line. This will obviously take into account the number of passengers and
crew onboard ship.
 V = Total volume of ship from keel to the margin line.

88. Give a definition of mechanical stability and directional stability.

 Mechanical stability is present in an object when the net force on that

object is zero.

 Directional stability is the stability of a moving body or a vehicle about

an axis which is perpendicular to its direction of motion.

89. Do transverse bulkheads reduce free surface effects?

 No, they don’t have any influence on reducing free surface effect.

90. For a DfT standard ship, what is the depth D in terms of floodable length
FL?

 For a standard ship, Depth = LF/15.

91. For timber ships, LW to LS is LS/n. What is the value of n?

 N value is 1/36.

92. The WNA mark is not fitted on ships above a particular length. What is
that length?

 100m in length
93. According to DfT, what is standard sheer in terms of LBP?

94. What is a whessoe gauge used for on ships?

 It is used to register the ullage of the tank at any given time, in particular
when the liquid level in the tank is changing during the loading and
discharge periods.

95. List four reasons why a ship’s overall G can be raised leading to loss of
stability.

 When a weight is moved upwards in the ship, then the ship’s overall G
will also be moved upwards to a higher position.
 When carrying the timber may become wet and saturated. This will
raise the overall G of the ship thereby possibly decreasing the ship’s
GM. This leads to a loss in stability.
 The height of the stowed timber can produce a sailing effect, leading to
an angle of list situation.
 Icing effects in very cold weather conditions on the timber will raise the
overall G of the ship. Again this will lead to a loss in stability.

96. What exactly defines a bulkhead deck?

 The uppermost deck to which the transverse watertight bulkheads are carried.

97. List four methods for removing ice that has formed on upper structures
of ships.

 Cold water pressure.

 Hot water and steam.
 Break up of ice with ice-crows, axes, ice-picks, metal ice-scrapers,
wooden sledgehammers and metal shovels.
 Heating of upper structures similar in effect to radiators or central
heating arrangements in a house.
98. Sketch a set of FL and PL curves.

99. Sketch the curves for Type ‘A’ ships, Type ‘B’ ships and ‘B-60’ ships.
100. In the loading of grain, what is the approximate formula for angle
of heel relative to 12°, due to shift of grain?

 The approximate angle of heel = Ahm⁄(mpm x SF) x 12°