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Summary The study of language What does studying literary language entail?

→ involves the → is the study of the rules of grammar,

use, and society
Creative use of language: Aristotle
creative use of
→ as distinguished and out of the ordinary
words that
when it makes use of exotic expressions;
often deviates
Language non-standard words, metaphor, lengthening,
from "ordinary"
and anything contrary to current usage
use of language → traditionally understood to be a system of
spoken or written symbols by means of which → any deviation from the use of ordinary
→ involves human beings, as members of a social group words will give it a non-prosaic appearance
creative and and participants in its culture, express
innovative choice themselves “Tragedy is an imitation of an action, that is serious,
of images and complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language
embellished with each kind of artistic ornament… in
other devices
Literary Language the form of action not of narrative; through pity and
that make up the
fear effecting the proper catharsis, or purgation of
text's structure in → the language of literature (used by
these emotions.”
order to achieve literary texts)
some special
→ not a matter of a separate language with
meaning or effect
its own grammar and vocabulary, but more
of a melting pot of all varieties and style of
William Wordsworth
language → in his Preface to lyrical ballads
→ expresses
ordinary → a poet should write poetry
→ using literary language means being
sentiments in sensitive to register, style, region, and all
ways that gives a “in a selection of language really used by men, at
the other subtleties of language the same time, to throw over them a certain coloring
new perspective
of imagination whereby ordinary things should be
to familiar themes → it is about being able to manipulate
presented to the mind in an unusual aspect.”
— makes the language to create a desired effect— to
reader feel the shock, delight, horrify, thrill, console or
emotions devastate
experienced by → skill in handling language then is
Samuel Coleridge
the author indispensable if the writer is to produce → refers to the poet's ability "to combine the
literature child's sense of wonder and novelty with the
appearances, which every day for perhaps
→ a writer chooses words and images forty years had been rendered familiar."
carefully to convey specific emotions or
an overall effect → poetry "produces the strongest impressions
of novelty" and "rescues the most admitted
truths from the impotence caused by the very
circumstances of their universal admission"
Some general definitions of literature:

→ written expression
→ based on human experiences
Percy Bysshe Shelley
(whether factual or imagined) → “A Defence of Poetry”
"Lifts the veil from the hidden beauty of
→ has aesthetic value / has excellence
the world, and makes familiar objects to
of form and content be as if they were not familiar..."

→ the language of literature overcomes

the barriers of customary perception, and
enables us to see some aspect of the
world freshly, or even for the first time
I.A. Richards Why should we study literature?
→ "Metaphor is something special and exceptional in
Models for learning and teaching literature
the use of language, a deviation from its normal (Carter and long, 1991)
mode of working, instead of the omniscient principle
of all its free action— a grace or ornament or added The Cultural Model
power of language, not its constitutive form"
→ the text as a cultural artifact; based on the
traditional concept that "literature is the best
way to learn a country's culture"
Mikhail Bakhtin: Dialogic Imagination
→ the language in a poetic work realizes itself as
something... all encompassing. Everything that the
The Language Model
poet sees, understands and thinks, he does through → the text is used as a focus for grammatical
the eyes of a given language... and there is nothing and structural analysis; since literature uses
that might require, for its expression, the help of any language, this should be the focus of study
other or alien language
→ the language of the poetic genre is a unitary and The Personal Growth Model
singular world outside of which nothing else exists and → text is the stimulus for personal growth activities
nothing else is needed. The concept of many worlds of
language, all equal in their ability to conceptualize and to
be expressive, is organically denied to poetic style

What should be our goal in studying literature?

Mark Twain
→ the difference between the right word and almost Language Proficiency
right word is the difference between lightning and the → grammatical competence
lightning bug → correct enunciation and articulation
→ critical reading and writing skills

"The old dog barks backward without getting Literary Competence

up, I can remember when he was a pup."
→ Literature is a performance in words
→ The form is part of the content
→ ability to internalize the grammar of literature
→ interpret the creative uses of the language
of literature in meaning making
→ literary appreciation

The first line is a description with pauses and relatively

heavy stresses of a dog that no longer has the energy
or the strength to leap up, and the second line reports How do we read literary language?
a memory of the dog as a puppy. It is highly patterned.
Analysis of linguistic elements such as: phonological,
morphological, syntactical, and semantical properties
The old concepts of "time" and "love" are
expressed differently in the following lines:

“Love, all alike, no season knows nor clime, nor

hours, days, months, which are the rags of time”

How do we study the language of literature?

→ in writing and understanding a literary work,
phonological, morphological, syntactical, and semantic
components of language, amongst others are used

→ as well as all the additional linguistic aspects like

plot, characterization, setting, theme, motifs, rhyme,
and imagery
Genres of Literature
* poetry, fiction, essay, drama Iambic - one unstressed syllable and one stressed syllable
Trochaic - one stressed syllable and one unstressed syllable
POETRY
Pyrrhic - contains two unstressed
→ a verse composition, condensed expression of
intense emotions; utilizes figurative language; Spondee - contains two stressed
meant to be heard
Dactyl - contains one stressed and two unstressed syllable
Types of Poetry Anapest - contains two unstressed and one stressed syllable
* narrative, lyric, dramatic

Narrative → poems that tell a story and which may Monometer - one foot Pentameter - five feet
contain one or more elements of fiction
Dimeter - two feet Hexameter - six feet
Epic - a long narrative poem recounting the heroic Trimeter - three feet Heptameter - seven feet
adventures of a character displaying superhuman
strength
Tetrameter - four feet Octameter - eight feet
Ballad - a short narrative poetic composition usually
sung by a minstrel
Stanza → a group of poetic lines or verses

Lyric → intense poetic compositions telling of a deep Couplet - two lines Sestet - six lines
emotional experience Quatrain - four lines Septet - seven lines
Sonnet - a fourteen-line poem Quintet - five lines Octet - eight lines
Elegy - a poem for the dead
Ode - a short poem dedicated to somebody/thing Rhyme → the regular recurrence of similar sounds
Song - a short poetic composition with melody usually at the end of poetic lines (end rhyme)
or within one line (internal rhyme)

Dramatic → type of poetry which contain one or more Rhyme scheme → the pattern or sequence in which the
dramatic elements rhyming words occur in a stanza or poem

→ dramatic monologue
Imagery → refers to the expressions evocative of
sense impression found in a poem. Words
appeal to the senses when they call to the
Elements of Poetry reader's mind the sensations described

Rhythm → is the regular recurrence of stressed and

unstressed syllables creating a pattern in the
visual imagery - vision tactile imagery - touch
lines of a poem auditory image - hearing gustatory image - taste
→ one can scan the poem to determine its olfactory image - smell kinesthetic - movement
meter— the measured pattern or grouping
of syllables called metric foot

→ a group of metric feet forms a poetic Tone → attitude of the poet towards his subjects
line or verse
Diction → choice of words in poetry
→ figures of speech

Simile - comparing two objects or persons using

"as" or "like"

Metaphor - indirect comparison of two objects,

persons or ideas

Personification - giving human qualities to

inanimate objects

Hyperbole - exaggeration in order to heighten its effect

Synecdoche - use of a part to represent the whole
Metonymy - a concept associated with something
represents it

Irony - the opposite of what is said or done is meant

Litotes - understatement
Paradox - a contradictory statement
Allusion - reference to a popular biblical or
religious figure

Alliteration - consecutive initial sounds

Onomatopoeia - the sound of a thing sounds for it

Theme → overall meanings of the poem

The Language of Fiction Short story - based on Edgar Allan Poe's definition, it
is a prose narrative with a unified structure in which all
What is Fiction? the elements contribute to a single effect

"Fictio" Latin word * if we read it hastily, skipping the descriptive passages,

Shaping, molding, counterfeiting we miss significant parts

"Fingere" French word Novel - long narrative with subplots, complex characters,
To fashion or form varied setting, etc

* narrative prose composition * can focus on many characters and has room to examine
* based on the imagination and experiences of their actions and motivations in greater detail and depth
the author
* a name for stories not entirely factual, but at least
partially shaped, made up, imagine Elements of fiction
* this shaping is largely up to the craft and skill of the
fictionist who creates and shapes a world in his/her stories Plot - series of events from beginning to end
that may or may not correspond to actual reality
Freytag's pyramid
Are historical novels also categorized as fiction? * the turning point in the story -
the central conflict is addressed
* explores the story's conflict up Climax * the writer explores the
until its climax; things get worse aftermath of the climax
How do we read stories? Rising action Falling action
* Every story, whether a news story, sworn testimony, Exposition Denouement
idle gossip, or a fairy tale, is a version of events told * the opening portion that provides * the last event that ties
from a particular perspective (or several) and is background information that the up the story's loose ends
inevitably incomplete readers need to understand the
events that will follow
* Similar to reading poetry, we pay attention not only
to the words used but also to the way those words Conflict - often occurs during the "rising action"
are utilized in order for the author to achieve an part. Clash between 2 opposing focus in the story
intended effect can be between: Person vs. Person; Person vs. Self;
* Remember that fictional texts are made up; shaped Person vs. Nature
by the author opening the story to such questions as
Circular plot - events starting in the present
who wrote it, why it was written, and whether we are
time, then goes backward to the past and then
given all the details
returns to the present
* thus even "true to life" stories may be open to Flashbacks - the author can bring in the past
different interpretations as the writer may include whenever it is most relevant to the present
or exclude details from it and organizing these
details in a manner that influences interpretation Foreshadowing - aids the plot to make certain
become clues or indicators of future events

Types of fiction Character - the persons inhibiting the story and makes it
come alive for the reader
Tale - short narratives with mostly incomplete structures
Round character - more depth and complexity
Parables - a short story that teaches a moral Flat character - exhibits only one personality trait
or spiritual lesson

Fables - stories which use animals to convey a Setting - time and place of the story including culture;
moral or message, sometimes stated at the end atmosphere
and sometimes implied

Legends - genre of folklore that features

stories about human events and actions
Point of view - perspective from which the story is told
(narrator); how a story is narrated

* First person: observer; participant

* Thirdperson:
Omniscient - sees everything and enters
into all the minds of the characters
Limited - only one character and sees
everything through him or her

Objective - does not enter the mind of any

character but describes events from the outside

Theme - idea or meaning of the story

The language of drama Dialogue → the means through which characters
greek reveal the details of their lives as well as
Drama - comes from 'dran' which means 'to act' their convictions and hopes

* a short story is meant to be read while drama
is meant to be acted and seen on stage
* it is written to be performed and not just read
Stage - refers to any area where a story script is
dramatized or presented
Monologue → a long speech of an actor to him/herself
Aside → wherein an actor who directly addresses
the audience (breaking the fourth wall)
→ often employed in comedy and avant garde
theatrical presentations to include the audience
in the action of the story

Script presented on the:

big screen = screen play stage = stageplay Spectacle → is the means by which the fictional world
is brought to life on the stage
small screen = teleplay radio = radio play
→ refers to all the sights and sounds of
performance:
* the artistic and authentic values of drama are fully
realized when it is acted before an audience * costuming, props, blocking, movement,
gestures, intonation, and pacing (the
tempo and coordination of performance)
* sounds and sight (audio and visual effects)
General types of drama

Tragedy → is serious in tone and subject matter and
usually ends unhappily either with death or
downfall of the major characters. Time of
action often follows the 3 unities of Aristotle
(unity of time, action, and day)
* concerned with the cycle of struggle and death
Design - various forms of the stage
* because of stage limitations, setting and
action are suggestive rather than panoramic
* Setting/Stagecraft - backdrops and other mise en scene
contribute greatly to the creation of illusion of life on stage

Theme → dramatized thought of the play

Comedy → is light and funny in tone and dialogue. → the unifying element
It usually attacks a flaw or error in society → overall meaning or significance of the action
by highlighting its ridiculous or funny side

* meant to evoke laughter

* portrays an optimistic view of the world Dramatic monologue
* concerned with triumph
* written in the first person, with one character
addressing another
Subtypes: musical play, melodrama, farce, theater of
the absurd * it is a monologue as the individual that the
persona is talking to is not heard at all in the poem

Elements of drama * as the poems progress, more of the speaker's

personality is revealed
Plot → structured with act (biggest division at the action)
and scene (specific episode under each (act)

* in a play refers to the unique arrangement of events that

the playwright has made

Character → persons created by the playwright to

carry the action, language, ideas, and
emotions of the play

* called actors
 Stopping by Woods on a snowy evening Poetry
Rhyme scheme: "Deep, keep, sleep"
* sound similar; a, a, a
Repetition: "And miles to go before I sleep"
* emphasizes the speaker's
sense of duty and the weight
of their responsibilities
Metaphor: The woods = metaphor for temptation or
escapism, contrasting with the speaker's
obligations
Symbolism: The horse and the owner's house =
responsibility and the demands of life
Woods = allure and the unknown
Imagery: "The woods are lovely, dark and deep"
* vivid imagery of a winter evening
Lovely - despite the darkness and the depth of
the woods, the speaker finds them appealing and
captivating
Dark - evokes a sense of mystery, uncertainty,
and even danger;
Deep - the density and extent of the woods, which
stretch far into the distance; the depth on the
speaker's thoughts, emotions, and reflections as he
contemplates he scene before him
First line: the woods show sadness and peace
Negativity
"But I have promises to keep"
The persona wanted to stay but cannot
because of the promises he needs to keep
Tone: Reflective, conveying the speaker's conflicting
emotions as they pause in the woods before
ultimately continuing on their journey
Themes: Nature: celebrates the beauty and tranquility
of nature, particularly the wintry landscape
of snow-covered woods
Duty versus desire: the tension between personal
desires and external obligations, as well as the
sacrifices that may be required to fulfill one's duties
Contemplation and reflection: prompts readers
to consider deeper meanings and truths about
life, nature, and the human experience
My Last Duchess Poetry
Rhyme and meter: Iambic pentameter with a rhyming
couplet at the end of each line
* formal structure lends a sense of control and
refinement to the Duke's speech, contrasting
with the disturbing content of his words.
Irony: The Duke's insistence on the Duchess's flirtatious
behavior while simultaneously revealing his own
possessiveness and jealousy creates dramatic
irony.
He sees himself as the victim of her supposed
infidelity, yet his treatment of her is far more
sinister.
Symbolism: The painting of the Duchess = a symbol of
her objectification and the Duke's desire to
control her even in death. The image freezes
her in time, allowing the Duke to possess her
gaze and silence her voice.
Imagery: the Duke refers to the Duchess's smiles as "her
looks went everywhere," implying promiscuity
References to the Duke's palace, his collection
of art, and his noble lineage contribute to the
atmosphere of opulence and privilege = wealth &
status
Diction: choice of words, particularly the Duke's use
of euphemisms and understatement, adds
to the chilling effect of the poem.
He speaks with a polite and measured tone, but
his underlying resentment and possessiveness
are evident
Themes: Power and control: The poem explores the
Duke's desire to exert power and control over
his wife, both in life and in death, as well as his
jealousy towards her ability to bring joy to
others.
Jealousy: The Duke's jealousy towards his wife's
friendly and outgoing nature with others is a
driving force behind his actions and ultimately
leads to her demise.
Objectification of women: The Duke treats
the Duchess as an object to be possessed
and controlled, rather than as a human being
with her own thoughts, feelings, and agency.
This theme reflects broader societal
attitudes towards women during the time
period in which the poem is set.
The father Fiction
Plot: The father follows the story of a widowed farmer,
Thord Overaas, and his daughter, Helga.
Thord is a stern and domineering figure in his
daughter's life, and he is determined to control
her future by arranging her marriage to a wealthy
widower, Gudmund Alfson.
However, Helga is in love with a poor tenant farmer,
Erik.
The plot revolves around the conflict between
Thord's expectations for his daughter's future and
Helga's desire for independence and true love.
Characters:
Thord Overaas: The overbearing and controlling
father who seeks to dictate his daughter's future
Helga: Thord's daughter, torn between her father's
wishes and her own desires for love and freedom
Erik: A tenant farmer who is in love with Helga and
represents her hopes for a different life
Gudmund Alfson: A wealthy widower whom Thord
wants Helga to marry for financial security
Setting: The novel is set in rural Norway in the 19th
century, depicting the struggles and traditions
of rural life in that era
Point of view: The novel is primarily told from a third-
person omniscient perspective, providing
insights into the thoughts and feelings of
multiple characters
Theme: The tension between tradition and individual
desire
The struggle for independence and agency,
particularly for women in a patriarchal society
The complexities of familial relationships and
the impact of parental expectations on children
The contract between material wealth and
emotional fulfillment
TRIFLES Drama
Plot: Revolves around the investigation of a murder
in a rural farmhouse.
While the male characters (represented by the
sheriff and a neighbor) search for evidence to
incriminate the accused wife, the female
characters, (represented by the sheriff's wife
and a neighbor's wife), discover crucial clues in
the seemingly trivial items within the house.
The play explores the dynamics of power,
gender roles, and perception.
Characters:
Mrs. Peters: The sheriff's wife, who initially
conforms to societal expectations but becomes
empathetic towards the accused woman.
Mrs. Hale: The neighbor's wife, who exhibits
empathy and understanding towards the accused
woman, having insight into her life and struggles.
Mr. Henderson (the sheriff): Represents law
enforcement and the patriarchal authority,
focused on the surface details of the case.
Mr. Peters: The sheriff's deputy, who assists in
the investigation but does not pay attention to
details considered insignificant.
Minnie Wright: The accused woman, whose
life and circumstances are revealed through
the discoveries made by the women.
Dialogic Form: Characterized by the interaction and
conversation among the characters,
primarily the male and female characters
investigating the murder.
Through dialogue, the characters reveal
their thoughts, perceptions, and biases,
contributing to the development of the
plot and themes.
Spectacle: The portrayal of the farmhouse setting and
the characters' interactions within it
Theme:

Gender roles and inequality:

* the marginalization of women's experiences and
perspectives in a male-dominated society. The
women's ability to uncover crucial evidence through
their attention to "trifles" contrasts with the
dismissive attitudes of the male characters.

Perception and reality:

* significant truths can be hidden in seemingly
insignificant details. While the men overlook
domestic matters as inconsequential, the women
recognize their importance in understanding the
accused woman's state of mind

Isolation and loneliness:

* the farmhouse setting and the accused woman's
isolation from the community reflect themes of
loneliness and alienation. The discovery of the dead
canary symbolizes the loss of companionship and
joy in Minnie Wright's life

Justice and empathy:

* true understanding and compassion are essential

for delivering fair judgment. The women ultimately
choose to protect Minnie Wright, recognizing the
circumstances that led to her actions