STUDY 1

IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON FRUIT PLANTS IN BANGLADESH

Some common features of the important fruit plants of Bangladesh are presented below.

1 Common name : Am

English name : Mango

Botanical name : Mangifera indica
Family : Anacardiaceae
Edible part : Mesocarp
Fruit type : Drupe

Fig 1.1 Mango fruit with leaf and peduncle

2 Common name : Chalta

English name : Indian dillenia

Botanical name : Dillenia indica
Family : Dilleniaceae
Edible part : Succulent prolonged calyx
Fruit type : Pseudofruit

Fig 1.2 A twig of Indian dillenia with fruit

2
3 Common name : Amlaki

English name : Emblica

Botanical name : Phyllanthus emblica
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Edible part : Mesocarp and epicarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.3 A twig of emblica with fruit

3
4 Common name : Bael

English name : Wood apple

Botanical name : Aegle marmelos
Family : Rutaceae
Edible part : Endocarp and placenta
Fruit type : Special type of berry

Fig 1.4 A twig of wood apple

4
5 Common name : Golap Jam

English name : Rose apple

Botanical name : Eugenia jambos
Family : Myrtaceae
Edible part : Thallamus and pericarp
Fruit type : Pome

Fig 1.5 A twig of rose apple

5
6 Common name : Jalpai

English name : Indian olive

Botanical name : Elacocarpus floribundas
Family : Elacocarpaceae
Edible part : Pericarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.6 A twig of rose apple

6
7 Common name : Karamcha

English name : Caranda

Botanical name : Carissa caranda
Family : Apocynaceae
Edible part : Mesocarp and pericarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.7 A twig of caranda

7
8 Common name : Bilati Gab

English name : Velvet apple

Botanical name : Diospyros discolor
Family : Ebenaceae
Edible part : Ripen pulp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.8 A twig of velvet apple

8
9 Common name : Kanthal

English name : Jackfruit

Botanical name : Artocarpus heterophyllus
Family : Moraceae
Edible part : Bract, perianth and seed
Fruit type : Multiple sorosis

Fig 1.9 Shoot (A), male inflorescence (B) and female inflorescence (C) of jackfruit

9
10 Common name : Elachi Lebu

English name : Lemon

Botanical name : Citrus limon
Family : Rutaceae
Edible part : Juicy hairs of endocarp
Fruit type : Hesperidium

11 Common name : Kagogi Lebu

English name : Lime

Botanical name : Citrus aurantifolia
Family : Rutaceae
Edible part : Juicy placental hairs
Fruit type : Hesperidium

12 Common name : Batabi Lebu

English name : Pummelo

Botanical name : Citrus grandis
Family : Rutaceae
Edible part : Juicy placental hairs of endocarp
Fruit type : Hesperidium

10
Fig 1.10 Different parts of lemon (A), lime (B) and Pummelo (C)

11
13 Common name : Lotkon

English name : Lotchon

Botanical name : Baccaurea sapida
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Edible part : Epicarp including mesocarp
Fruit type : Multiple

Fig 1.11 A twig of Lotchon

14 Common name : Amra

English name : Golden apple/Hog plum

Botanical name : Spondias mangifera
Family : Anacardiaceae
Edible part : Mesocarp
Fruit type : Drupe

Fig 1.12 A twig of Golden apple

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14 Common name : Kaju Badam

English name : Chasew nut

Botanical name : Anacardium occidentale
Family : Anacardiaceae
Edible part : Peduncle and cotyledons
Fruit type : Nut

Fig 1.13 A twig of cashew nut with fruit

13
15 Common name : Dalim

English name : Pome granate

Botanical name : Punica granatum
Family : Punicaceae
Edible part : Juicy outer coat of seed
Fruit type : Drupe

Fig 1.14 A twig of pomegranate with fruit

14
16 Common name : Sofeda

English name : Sapota

Botanical name : Achras sapota
Family : Sapotaceae
Edible part : Mesocarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.15 A twig of sapota with fruit

15
17 Common name : Kamranga

English name : Carambola/Star fruit

Botanical name : Averrhoa carambola
Family : Averrhoaceae
Edible part : Fleshy pulp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.16 A twig of carambola

16
18 Common name : Dalim

English name : Pome granate

Botanical name : Punica granatum
Family : Punicaceae
Edible part : Juicy outer coat of seed
Fruit type : Drupe

Fig 1.17 A twig of pomegranate with fruit

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19 Common name : Peara

English name : Guava

Botanical name : Psidium guajava
Family : Myrtaceae
Edible part : Thallamus and pericarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.18 A twig of guava with fruit

18
20 Common name : Lichu

English name : Litchi/Lychee

Botanical name : Litchi chinensis
Family : Sapindaceae
Edible part : Aril (mesocarp)
Fruit type : Seeded nut

Fig 1.19 A twig of litchi with fruit

19
21 Common name : Anarash

English name : Pine apple

Botanical name : Ananas comosus
Family : Bromeliaceae
Edible part : Sorosis
Fruit type : Receptacle, bract and perianth

Fig 1.21 Different parts of pineapple plant including propagating materials

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22 Common name : Kodbel

English name : Elephant apple

Botanical name : Feronia elephantum
Family : Rutaceae
Edible part : Mesocarp, endocarp and placenta
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.22 A twig of litchi with fruit

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23 Common name : Kul

English name : Jujube

Botanical name : Zizyphus mauritiana
Family : Rhamnaceae
Edible part : Epicarp and mesocarp
Fruit type : Drupe

Fig 1.23 A twig of jujube

22
24 Common name : Angur

English name : Grapes

Botanical name : Vitis vinifera
Family : Vitaceae
Edible part : Mesocarp, endocarp (placenta, pericarp)
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.24 A twig of grape

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25 Common name : Narikel

English name : Coconut

Botanical name : Cocos nucifera
Family : Palmae
Edible part : Liquid endosperm, endosperm and embryo
Fruit type : Fibrous drupe/stone

Fig 1.25 Different parts of a coconut plant

24
26 Common name : Pepe

English name : Papaya/pawpaw

Botanical name : Carica papaya
Family : Caricaceae
Edible part : Mesocarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.26 Different parts of papaya plant

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27 Common name : Kala

English name : Banana

Botanical name : Musa sapientum
Family : Musaceae
Edible part : Mesocarp and endocarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.27 Different parts of banana plant including propagating materials

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28 Common name : Ata

English name : Bullock’s heart

Botanical name : Annona reticulata
Family : Annonaceae
Edible part : Fleshy pericarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.28 A twig of bullock’s heart

27
29 Common name : Sharifa

English name : Custard apple

Botanical name : Annona squamosa
Family : Annonaceae
Edible part : Fleshy pericarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.29 A twig of custard apple

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30 Common name : Khirni

English name : Khirni

Botanical name : Mimusops hexandra
Family : Sapotaceae
Edible part : Endocarp and mesocarp
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.30 A twig of Khirni

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31 Common name : Tetul

English name : Tamarind

Botanical name : Tamarindus indica
Family : Leguminosae
Edible part : Mesocarp
Fruit type : Lomentum

Fig 1.31 A twig of tamarind

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32 Common name : Jamrul

English name : Wax jambu

Botanical name : Eugenia alba
Family : Myrtaceae
Edible part : Pericarp/fleshy thallamus
Fruit type : Berry

Fig 1.32 A twig of Jamrul

31
33 Common name : Orboroi

English name : Orboroi/Star goose berry

Botanical name : Phyllanthus distichus
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Edible part : Fleshy pericarp/mesocarp
Fruit type : Drupe

Fig 1.33 A twig of Orboroi (star goose berry)

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 STUDY 2

STUDY ON PLANTING SYSTEMS FOR FRUIT ORCHARD

Planting system

Planting system is defined as the method by which different plants are planted in the field.
Particular system of planting is selected considering several factors such as slope of the land,
purpose of utilization of the orchard space, convenience and species of fruit plants to be
planted ie. long duration species (mango) or short duration species (banana).

Objectives of studying planting system

(1) To accommodate maximum number of plants in a given area of land without impeding
the growth and development of other plants.
(2) To obtain proper growth and development of the plants by ensuring uniform
distribution of nutrients, light and water.
(3) To facilitate proper intercultural operations such as weeding, irrigation, drainage,
spraying insecticides and pesticides and applying manures and fertilizers.
(4) To make the orchards beautiful to look at.

Types of planting systems

(1) Square system

(2) Rectangular system
(3) Triangular system
(4) Hexagonal system
(5) Quincunx system
(6) Contour system

2.4.1.1 Square system

In square system of planting, the row to row and plant to plant distances are equal, and four
adjacent plants in two rows make a square. This is considered the simplest and widely used
planting system. Half of the spacing is kept bare between the border and the first row.
Examples of fruit crops planted following square system are mango, papaya, jackfruit and
banana. Total number of plants in a particular area of land is calculated by formula:

Total number of plant = Number of row × Number of plants per row

Fig 2.1 Square system

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Advantages of square system

(1) Easy and simple

(2) Uniform growth and development of plants
(3) Intercultural operations and harvesting can be done easily from two directions
(4) Accommodation of plants is more than rectangular system
(5) The orchard established following square system generally looks beautiful
(6) Equal distribution of natural resources, namely nutrients, light, air and water
(7) Equal intercrop interaction

Limitations
(1) Less number of plants are accommodated than hexagonal system
(2) The centre of the square remains unutilized as compared with quincunx system

2.4.1.2 Rectangular system

In this system row to row distance is greater than the plant to plant distance, and four adjacent
plants of two rows form a rectangle. This system is mainly used for planting vegetables.
Examples are potatoes and water melon. Total number of plants in a particular area of land is
calculated by formula:

Total number of plant = Number of row × Number of plants per row

Fig 2.2 Rectangular system of planting

34
Advantages of rectangular system
(1) Easy and simple
(2) Suitable for vegetables
(3) Intercultural operations can be performed easily from one direction

Limitations
(1) Accommodation of plants is less as compared with square system
(2) Plants do not obtain equal space, nutrient, light, air and water due to unequal plant to
plant and row to row distances

2.4.1.3 Triangular system

In this system, three adjacent plants in two rows form a bilateral triangle. Here row to row
distance is more than the plant to plant distance. In this system, plants are planted in the first
row as in the rectangular system. The second or alternate row drawn at a distance and parallel
to the first rows. The plants are planted at the angles of the bilateral triangles. This system is
also called bilateral triangular system. It is used for planting lemon, pineapple and guava.
Total number of plants in a particular area of land is calculated by formula:

Total number of plant =

(Total number of row × Number of plants in the first row) – Number of alternate row

Number of alternate row (for even number of rows) = n/2, where n = Total number of rows

Number of alternate row (for odd number of rows) = (n–1)/2, where n = Total number of rows

Fig 2.3 Triangular system of planting

Advantages of triangular system

(1) Intercultural operations can be performed from three directions
(2) Total number of plants is more than the rectangular system
(3) Orchards established following triangular system generally look beautiful

Limitations
(1) Relatively complex to layout
(2) Alternate rows accommodate lesser number of plants as compared to the main rows

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2.4.1.4 Hexagonal system

In this system, three adjacent plants of two rows form an equilateral triangle, and six plants of
three adjacent rows form a hexagon. The six plants are planted at the corners of hexagon, and
another plant in planted at the centre of the hexagon. This system is also called equilateral
triangular system. For examples, mango and pineapple are planted following hexagonal
system. Here the plant to plant distance is greater than the row to row distance. The row to
row distance is calculated following the theorem of Pythagoras for right angle triangle as
follows:

Row to row distance = √{Plant to plant distance)2 – (Half of the plant to plant distance)2}
A

90o
C
B

Fig 2.4 A right angular triangle, where AB (perpendicular) indicates row to row distance, and
BC (base) indicates plant to plant distance

Therefore, total number of plants =

(Total number of row × Total number of plants in 1st row) - Total number of alternate row

Fig 2.5 Hexagonal system of planting

Advantages
(1) About 15% more plants can be accommodated in hexagonal system as compared with
square system
(2) Uniform distributions of light, water, air and nutrients are maintained
(3) Intercultural operations can be done from three dimensions
(4) It is the most beautiful amongst the planting systems

36
Limitations
(1) Complex system
(2) Require knowledge on planting systems

2.4.1.5 Quincunx system

It is the modification of square system. It is also known as diagonal system or filler system. In
this system, main plants are planted at the corners of square, and a quick-growing small sized
plant (filler plant) is planted at the centre of each square. For examples, mango/jackfruit/litchi
is planted at the corners of square and filler plants like lemon/guava/banana are planted at the
centre of each square. Total number of plants in a particular area of land is calculated by
formula:

Total number of main plant = Number of row × Number of plants per row

No of filler plants = (Number of row – 1) × (Number of plants per row -1)

Total number of plants = Number of main plants + Number of filler plants

Fig 2.7 Quincunx system of planting

Advantages
(1) It is suitable for intercropping short canopy fruit plants such as lemon, papaya, banana
etc.
(2) Unused place of square system can be efficiently used.
(3) Early plants can be obtained
(4) Early economic benefit can be secured by planting filler plants

Limitations
(1) It is somewhat complex
(2) Intercultural operations are difficult to perform

2.4.1.6 Contour system

This system is followed in hilly areas where the slope of land is less than 10% (3-10%). The
soils are removed and replaced in such a way that the surface of the soil becomes horizontal
instead of slope.

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Fig 2.8 Contour system of planting

Advantages
(1) Better use of hilly areas
(2) Check soil erosion
(3) Reduce surface run off

Limitations
(1) Laborious system
(2) Uneven slopes create problem in managing orchard
(3) Row to row distance can be maintained but plant to plant distance cannot be
maintained

2.5 General spacing for some important fruit plants

Fruit plants Plant to plant distance (m)

Mango 10-12
Jackfruit 10-12
Litchi 9-10
Banana 2-3
Papaya 2-3
Coconut 7-8
Guava 7-8
Custard apple 5-6
Orange 6-7
Pummelo 6-7
Sapota 8-9
Avocado 8-9
Wax jambu 6-7
Jujube 6-7

38
The present study comprises the following exercises (1-6)

Exercise 1: Calculate the number of mango grafts to be required for planting in

an area of 0.8 ha of land following square system of planting. Also prepare a
layout of the orchard.

Solution

We know, 1 ha = 10000 m2

So, 0.8 ha = 8000 m2

The possible combinations (length × breadth) of 8000 m2 land are as follows (Table 1):

Table 1: Possible combinations of length and breadth of 0.8 ha of land

Length (m) Breadth (m)

200 40
40 200
160 50
50 160
125 64
64 125
100 80
80 100

Now, to calculate the number of grafts, and to make a layout of the orchard, a careful
selection of a combination is important. The recommended spacing for mango grafts is 10-12
m. For the present problem, the spacing is considered 10 m. In case of square system, the
plant to plant and row to row distances are the same.

Using the above information, the number of grafts to be required in 0.8 ha (8000 m2) are
calculated and summarized in the following Table 2:

Table 2: Calculation of number of grafts in 0.8 ha of land

Possible combinations Number Number Total Wastage

of rows of grafts number of (m)
Length (m), Plant Breadth (m), Row per row grafts* Plant Row
200 40 4 20 80 0 0
40 200 20 4 80 0 0
160 50 5 16 80 0 0
50 160 16 5 80 0 0
100 80 8 10 80 0 0
80 100 10 8 80 0 0
125 64 6 12 72 5 4
64 125 12 6 72 4 5

* Total number of plants = (Number of rows × Number of plants per row)

39
Among the above combinations, 100 m × 80 m is found suitable as maximum number of
plants can be accommodated with no wastage of land. Therefore, the number of plants is 80.

Result: A total of 80 mango grafts to be required to plant in an area of 0.8 ha of land.

Fig 2.9 Layout of mango orchard of 0.8 ha of land following square system of planting

40
Exercise 2: Find out the number of papaya seedlings to be required in an area of
0.5 ha of land following rectangular system of planting. Also prepare a layout of
the orchard.

41
Exercise 3: Find out the number of air layerages to be required for planting in
an area of 0.5 ha of land following triangular system of planting and make a
complete plan of the orchard.

42
Exercise 4: Calculate the number of banana suckers to be required for planting
in an area of 0.15 ha following hexagonal planting system and make a layout of
the plantation.

43
Exercise 5: Find out the number of mango graftage and lemon air layerage to be
required for planting in an area of 1.5 ha of land following quincunx system and
make a layout of the orchard.

44
 STUDY 3

STUDY ON DIFFERENT PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES FOR IMPORTANT

FRUIT PLANTS IN BANGLADESH

Definition of plant propagation

Plant propagation is the perpetuation or increase in number of plants. Usually fruit plants can
be propagated by two ways, namely sexual or seed propagation and asexual or vegetative
propagation.

Seed propagation
A number of horticultural crops such as vegetables, ornamental annuals, flowering trees and a
number of fruits are propagated by seeds. Seed propagation is practiced for three principal
reasons:

(1) To produce commercial crops,

(2) To develop new varieties, and
(3) To grow rootstocks for budding and grafting

Pollination and fertilization are required to produce viable seed. However, some fruits may be
seedless containing shriveled or empty seeds. These fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits, and
the process is called parthenogenesis, which may be due to some reasons as (i) absence of
pollination and fertilization, (ii) embryo abortion, (iii) retardation of embryo growth due to
deficiency of nutrients and water, and extreme temperatures.

Vegetative propagation
Vegetative or asexual propagation involves reproduction from vegetative parts of the plant,
and the new individual maintains its parental characteristics.
Advantages of vegetative propagation

(i) Propagation of some important fruit plants such as banana, pineapples, grapes etc.
is only achieved through vegetative means,
(ii) Unique characteristics of some cross-pollinated fruits trees such as apple, peach,
mango, citrus, litchi etc. can be maintained only if vegetative propagation
technique is employed,
(iii) Vegetative propagation is important for those fruit trees where seed germination is
poor, or they losses viability quickly, for instance, citrus,
(iv) To develop plants with resistance to diseases, pest and unfavourable climatic
conditions, budding and grafting practices can be adopted using hardy and
resistant rootstocks, and
(v) Vegetatively propagated plants are usually smaller in size and come to flowering
earlier than seed propagated plants.

Disadvantages of vegetative propagation

(i) No new varieties can be developed,
(ii) More expensive than seed propagation, and
(iii) Vegetatively propagated plants are generally short-lived.

45
Types of propagation of horticultural crops with special attention to the fruit crops are shown
in Fig 3.1

46
 PROPAGATION

SEXUAL OR SEED PROPAGATION ASEXUAL OR VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Propagation by apomictic Propagation by Propagation on its own Propagation on the root

seedlings (mango and Citrus) specialized structures root system system of other plants

Cutting Layering Grafting Budding

Bulbs Tubers Rhizome Corms Runners Suckers Offsets (date

(onion and (Potatoes) (banana, (gladiolus) (strawberry) (bananas) palm)
garlic) zinger)

Fig 3.1 Layout showing different types of propagation of horticultural crops

 Propagation using specialized plant parts

Runner
Runners are specialized aerial stems (stolons) that arise from the leaf axils of plants having
rosette crowns. A typical runner producing fruit plant is strawberry.

Suckers
Some plants such as guava, pineapple, banana etc. produce adventitious shoots from the
underground position of the stem or from their horizontal root systems. Examples are sword
and water suckers in banana, and stem and ground suckers in pineapple.

Offset (offshoot)
An offset is a shoot or thick stem of rosette-like appearance arising from the base of main
stem of certain plants, such as date palm, pineapple etc. Date palm cultivars are propagated
vegetatively by cutting away the offshoots and replanting them.

Propagation by cuttings

A cutting is a part of a plant which will produce roots, and eventually a new plant, which is
quite true to the parent plant. Different types of cuttings with examples are shown in the
following:

Cutting

Root cutting Stem cutting Leaf cutting Leaf bud cutting

(guava, apple, (citrus, (Bryophyllum, (lemon, black
pear and cherry) Chrysanthemum Begonia) berry, raspberry)
and Dahlia)

Herbaceous Softwood Semi hardwood Hardwood

cutting cutting cutting cutting

Fig 3.2 Different types of cuttings for propagation of horticultural crops

NB Leaf bud cutting: In general, a leaf bud cutting consists of a leaf blade, petiole, and a
small piece of stem containing a dormant vegetative bud at the leaf axil.
Propagation by layering

In layering, a stem is induced to root when it is still attached to and sustained by the parent
plant.

Advantages of layering
It is a reliable and easy means of propagation, especially in species which are difficult-to-
root on cuttings.

Disadvantages of layering
Large number of plants cannot be produced by this method within a short time from a limited
number of stock plants.

Types of layering

Simple layering: Shoots are bent down over the ground, pegged and covered with soil. Roots
are formed on the buried part of the shoot, and the rooted layers are used for propagation.

Tip layering: Tip layering is practiced in such plants which have got trailing types of shoots.
In tip layering, growing tips of such plants are bent down and buried in the soil to a depth of
5-7.5 cm or they may be inserted into pots. The covered portion becomes etiolated and
swollen, and strikes roots within 2-3 weeks. Examples are blackberries, raspberries,
gooseberries etc.

Serpentine or compound layering: Stems of plants, which have got long and slender shoots,
are laid in the ground and alternatively covered and exposed over their entire length.
Sometimes ringing and girdling are also done. Examples are Citrus and Jasminum.

Trench or continuous layering: In trench layering the branch is placed in a shallow trench and
is covered for its entire length, leaving only the terminal portion exposed. It has an advantage
of producing many plants per branch.

Mound or stool layering: It consists of cutting back to the ground the stems of the plant
during the non-growing season and covering the shoots in the spring with a mound of soil.
Examples are apple root stock and gooseberry.

Air layering: Layering is done at the aerial portion of the plant. Air layering is also known as
Chinese layering, circum position, pot layering, marcottage, and gootee.

49
Propagation by grafting

Grafting can be defined as the art of joining parts together so that they will readily unite and
continue to grow as one plant. A graft has two parts:

Scion- It refers to that part of a graft combination that becomes the upper or top portion of the
plant.

Rootstock or stock- The lower portion of the graft combination, which finally becomes the
root system. In most cases the stock is raised from seeds.

Advantages of grafting

(1) Useful techniques for preserving and perpetuating some plants that cannot be conveniently
multiplied by other vegetative methods.
(2) The benefits of particular rootstocks can be utilized, for example, pest and disease
resistance, tolerance to high soil moisture, low temperature, salinity and alkalinity.
(3) Growing of several kinds of flowers/fruits on a same tree is possible.
(4) Unproductive, shy bearing or trees bearing poor quality fruits can be changed to superior
quality by top-working.
(5) Very useful for repairing the damaged trunk of a tree or for replacing and injured root
system.
(6) The presence of viral diseases in a tree can be confirmed by grafting it onto an indicator
plant (Indexing).

Limitations of grafting

(1) Graft incompatibility.

(2) Limited with dicots with continuous cambial zones.
(3) Monocots are not suitable for grafting.

How the graft union is formed?

(1) Formation of callus tissues consisting of parenchymatous cells by the cambium of both
the stock and scion.
(2) Intermingling and interlocking of parenchyma cells of callus of both graft components.
(3) Differentiation of certain parenchyma cells of the cambium in the stock and the scion.
(4) Formation of new vascular tissues (of the stock) by the new cambium, thus making
contact between the vascular tissues of the stock and the scion, and permitting
translocation of nutrients, water and metabolites between the stock and the scion.

The present study comprises the following exercises (Exercise 1-8)

50
Exercise 1 Propagation of lemon by stem cutting

Stem cutting

Stem cutting is a method of vegetative propagation in which roots are developed on a stem
portion which is completely severed from the parent plant.

Advantages of stem cutting

(1) Easy and simple method

(2) Numerous cuttings can be made from a single plant
(3) Parental characteristics are maintained in the newly prepared plant
(4) Highly skilled labours are not required
(5) Less troublesome.

Disadvantages of stem cutting

(1) Plants from stem cutting possess adventitious roots

(2) The roots can not enter into the soil deep, and consequently, the plants lodge due to
strong winds.

Materials required

(1) Secateurs
(2) Knife
(3) Stem part with 2-3 nodes

Time of stem cutting

Wet summer (June-August) is the best time for stem cutting

Procedure

Selection of stem: A stem of around 1 year old with a diameter similar to that of a pencil
should be selected. The stem should be of disease and insect free having several viable buds.

Preparation of cutting: A stem part with 2-3 nodes should be separated from the stock
plant/mother plant. A round cut is made at the distal end and a slanting cut just below a node
is made at the proximal end. The slanting cut at the proximal end facilitates higher degree of
cambial exposure, and also help identify the polarity.

Placement of cutting: The prepared cuttings are placed north facing into the soil of the
cutting beds at 45o angle by inserting the proximal end. The angular placement helps the air to
sweep over the cuttings; the cuttings remained undisturbed and root quickly.

51
Fig 3.1 Steps of stem cutting in lemon

52
Exercise 2: Propagation of Litchi by air layering

Layering

Layering is a method of vegetative propagation in which root formation on a stem occurs

while it is attached to the mother plant. The rooted stem is detached and used as propagating
material, which grows on its own root system.

Air layering

Air layering is a type of layering roots are allowed to form on the aerial part of the plant by
exposing bark and cambium and closing the exposed portion with moist medium. Air layering
is also known as pot layering, Chinese layering, marcottage, circum position and gootee
layering. This is a popular method of vegetative propagation that is practiced in litchi, guava,
sapota, citrus, pomegranate etc. This is easy to perform, and is a reliable method in those
plants which are difficult to root.

Advantages of air layering

(6) Simple and easy method of propagation

(7) Per cent success is comparatively high
(8) Easy and less time-consuming
(9) Does nor require high skill

Disadvantages of air layering

(1) The whole stem is used up to make a single layer

(2) Number of layers from a single plant is less

Time of layering

Air layering is performed during summer and rainy season, ie. February-August, when the
plants are in active growth condition. The wet summer, ie. May-August is the best due to high
humidity. Dry season should be avoided as it is difficult to keep the rooting media moist.

Materials required

(1) Sharp knife

(2) Polyethylene bags
(3) Rooting media (50% soil + 50% well decomposed cowdung)
(4) Parent plant/stock plant

Procedure of airlayering

Selection of shoot for air layering: Healthy, disease free, horizontally placed shoot of
approximately 1 year old stem of 1-2 cm diameter is suitable for air layering. Older than 1
year would also be used, but rooting would be a little difficult.

53
Making wound: On the selected shoot, a 2-3 cm long bark (phloem) is removed using sharp
knife in the form of a ring. This operation is done approximately 50 cm away from the tip of
the shoot. The cambium (slimy material under the phloem), dividing cells, are also completely
removed to discourage regeneration of phloem.

Placement of rooting media: A handful of rooting media, containing 50% loamy soil and
50% well-decomposed cowdung, is placed over the exposed portion of the shoot in order to
keep the wounded area moist. The media should girdle the entire exposed area. Then the
portion is wrapped with gunny bag or polyethylene bag and was tied with pieces of ropes at
both ends. Care should be taken so that the air does not pass into the media to avoid drying of
the exposed portion.

Separation and planting of the layer: The layer is separated about 2 months after the
operation when the roots are visible. The layer is generally separated by giving ‘V’ cuts in 3
steps (1/2, ¼ and ¼) to reduce the cutting shock. Following separation and careful removal of
the polyethylene, the layers are kept under damp condition for 2 weeks bring the roots to more
active conditions. Then the layers are planted in the nursery beds followed by watering.

Precautions

(1) Cambial layer should be removed completely, and

(2) The gunny bag or polyethylene bang should be tied very tightly to avoid entry of air

Fig 3.2 Steps of air layering

54
Exercise 3: Propagation of mango by contact grafting

Definition

Contact grafting is defined as a method of propagation in which the scion unites with the
stock while still attached with parent. In other words, two independent and self sustained
plants are united together. Examples are mango and sapota.

Materials required

Sharp knife, rope, polyethylene strip, polyethylene bags, grafting wax etc.

Time of grafting

Contact grafting is generally done during the period from late summer to whole rainy season.

Procedure

Preparation of stock and scion: A long cut, measuring 4-5 cm, and not deeper than 1/3 of the
stem diameter, is made through the cambium and slightly into the wood on both stock and
scion.

Adjoining: The cut surfaces are pressed firmly together and tied securely with waxed string or
polyethylene tape. After the union has been taken place, the scion is severed below the union
and the stock above the union.

55
Fig 3.3 Steps of contact grafting

56
Exercise 4: Propagation of mango by veneer grafting

Definition

The word ‘veneer’ means a thin layer, usually of wood, placed over a base of common
materials. Veneer grafting is the grafting with detached scion, where the scion is inserted into
rootstock in such a way that the two will unite and continue their growth as a single plant.
This method is commercially practiced in mango propagation.

Materials required

Sharp knife, polyethylene strip, polyethylene bags, grafting wax, scion and stock plants.

Time of grafting

Veneer grafting is generally performed during the period from late summer to rainy season.

Procedure of veneer grafting

Selection of stock and scion: A healthy, straight, disease free stock of about one year and 1.5
cm diameter is selected from the nursery. The scion of same or a slightly lesser diameter and
age should be selected from desired stock plant. The terminal bud of the scion should be about
to open.

Preparation of stock and scion: A shallow downward cut of about 3-7 cm long is given on
the stock plant. At the base of this cut, a second, short, downward and inward cut is made to
join the first cut, thereby remove a piece of wood and bark.

The scion is prepared by giving a long sloping cut on the one side down to the scion base and
a very small wedge cut on the other side.

The cuts on the stock and on the scion should be of the same length and width so that the
cambial layers of both components match each other.

Adjoining: After placing the cut surfaces of scions and stock together, they are tied securely
with polyethylene strips. After the union is complete, the stock is cut back, leaving the scion
to grow. It will take about ½-2 months.

Bagging: An additional measure may be taken to protect the place of union from exposure to
rains and winds that create a micro-environment congenial to union by covering the grafted
area together with the topes of the both rootstock and scion with a polyethylene tube.

Completion of grafting process: 15-20 days are required for the dormant bud to start
opening. Then another 3-4 weeks are required for completion of veneer grafting.

57
Fig 3.4 Steps of veneer grafting

58
Exercise 5: Propagation of mango by tongue grafting

Definition

Tongue grafting is also known as whip grafting. In this method, a detached scion is grafted on
the cut top of the rootstock. In both stock and scion, a tongue like structure is made, and hence
this method is called tongue grafting.

Materials required

Sharp knife, polyethylene strips, polyethylene bags, rootstock and scion.

Time of grafting

Grafting is practiced during the period from late summer to rainy season.

Procedure of tongue grafting

Preparation of rootstock: A rootstock plant of around 0.25-0.50 inch diameter is selected.

At first the top portion of the branch is cut transversely. A slanting cut of about 1.5 inch long
is made from the top portion. A second cut was started below 1/3 the length of slanting cut
and run through inside as parallel as possible to the first cut. The length of second cut should
be half of the first cut. Thus a tongue like structure is framed.

Preparation of scion: A scion wood with terminal bud is selected. The diameter being
similar to that of stock. After detaching it from plant, two cuts similar to that of stock are
given on the lower portion of the scion wood.

Adjoining: The stock and scion were inserted into each other with the tongues interlocking.
After proper placement of stock and scion, the union is tied with polyethylene strips.

Precautions: Care should be taken so that the cambium of the stock and scion match each
other and make close contact between them.

59
Fig 3.5 Steps of tongue grafting

60
Exercise 6: Propagation of mango by cleft grafting

Definition

In this method, grafting is done by making a cleft in the stock in which scion shoot is inserted
and allowed them to unite after binding them tightly.

Time of grafting

Early spring (February-March) when the plant is rearing dormancy.

Materials required

Sharp knife, polyethylene strips, polyethylene bags, rootstock and scion.

Procedure of cleft grafting

Preparation of stock and scion: A rootstock of around 2.0-5.0 cm is selected. The top of the
plant is amputated, and a vertical slit of around 5-7 cm is made through the stock. Two
slanting cuts of around 5-7 cm are made on the both sides of the stock.

Adjoining: The peg-like prepared scion is then inserted into the vertical slit of the rootstock
ensuring the cambial contact at least on one side.

Fig 3.6 Steps of clef grafting

61
Exercise 7: Propagation of guava by patch budding

Patch budding

A rectangular piece of bark is removed from the stock and replaced with a patch of bark of the
same size containing a bud of the variety to be propagated. Patch budding is widely and
successfully used in those plants which have relatively thick bark, for example, jujube,
walnut, pecan etc. The prerequisites of patch budding are that both the barks of the stock and
scion wood should be slipped easily. If the bark of the stock is not completely removed and
hang beneath the bud union, the budding is called Forekert budding.

Time of patch budding

May to June is the suitable time for patch budding in Bangladesh.

Materials required

(1) Patch budder

(2) Double bladed knife
(3) Pruning saw
(4) Polyethylene strips
(5) Root stock and scion

Procedure of ring budding

Selection and preparation of root stock: A shoot of current season’s growth, measuring
about 0.75-2.5 cm diameter was selected and collected using pruning saw. A piece of bark in
form of rectangle is removed from internodal area.

Selection and preparation of scion: A well-developed bud, which is about to open, with
bark in the form of rectangular patch (2.5 cm long) is cut from the bud stick of the desired
variety. Leaf was removed from bud leaving the petiole.

Placement of scion on the rootstock: As soon as the scion is prepared, it should be placed on
the prepared rootstock. The union is then wrapped tightly with polyethylene strips leaving the
bud open.

Precautions

(1) Root stock and scion should be free from insect and disease infestations.
(2) In no way, the cambial layers are damaged.

62
Fig 3.7 Steps of patch budding

63
Exercise 8: Propagation of jujube by ring budding

Ring budding

In this method a complete ring is removed from the rootstock. The scion, another complete
ring containing desired bud, is placed on the exposed portion of the rootstock by slowly
pushing downward, so the scion is tightly placed on the rootstock. The diameter of the
rootstock and bud stick should be more or less same. The rate of budding success is very high
in ring budding because of higher cambial contacts. However, this is only practiced
successfully in those plants where the barks are slipped easily from the wood (xylem tissue).
Examples are citrus, guava and jujube.

Another type of budding is called Flute budding in which the ring is not an intact ring but
with one side (1/8th of the diameter) open. This is a modification of ring budding, where the
scion is prepared fast compared to ring budding. This type of budding also has higher success
rate due to increased cambial contact compared to those of other methods of budding.

Time of budding

Spring to rainy season is the best when the plants remain in active growing condition, and
sprouts are grown after pruning.

Materials required

(1) Double bladed knife

(2) Polyethylene strips
(3) Rootstock
(4) Scion wood etc.

Procedure of ring budding

Selection and preparations of rootstock: At first a healthy rootstock of around 1 year old is
selected. A ring of desired size (2.5 cm long) is made using a double bladed knife on the
internodal space of the rootstock. Then the top of the rootstock at the upper cut is completely
cut off. Then the bark in the form of an intact ring is removed.

Selection and preparation of scion: A scion wood of similar age and diameter is selected.
An intact ring of same size of that of rootstock with a bud is removed using double bladed
knife.

Union of scion on the rootstock: The prepared scion ring is placed on the prepared stock,
and the union is wrapped with nylon strips.

Precautions

(1) The selected rootstock and scion wood should of same age and diameter.
(2) The rootstock and scion should be free from insect and disease infestations.
(3) The cambial layers of both the rootstock and scion must not be macerated or damaged.

64
Fig 3.8 Steps of ring budding

65
 STUDY 4

STUDY ON THE MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF SOME

IMPORTANT FRUIT CROPS OF BANGLADES

Exercise 1: Study on the morphology of jackfruit

Common name: Jackfruit

Botanical name: Artocarpus heterophyllus
Family: Moraceae

The morphological features of jackfruit are given below:

Habit: Evergreen plant, perennial, monoecious, dicot, medium size (8-10 m high)

Root: Tap root system, well developed, branched

Stem: Woody, strong, heavily branched, yellow to reddish pigments present on the bark.

Leaf: Simple, alternate, margin serrated at the seedling stage and entire at mature.

Inflorescence: Spike, numerous flowers are originated in the club shaped inflorescence. Two
type of inflorescence, namely male and female. Male inflorescence is originated from narrow
branches, surface smooth, tapering at proximal end and has no proximal ring. The female
inflorescence is originated from the larger branches, a surface is rough, and stalk is thick
almost round at both ends with prominent ring at the proximal end. At the preliminary stage
both the inflorescences are covered with spathe.

Flower: Regular, hypogynous, small, tetramerous, cross-pollinated and creamy in colour.

Fruit: Multiple sorosis, numerous cells/cloves are present in a fruit. Large numerous spines
are present on the fruit surface.

Edible part: Bract, perianth and seeds.

66
Fig 4.1 Different parts of jackfruit plant

67
Exercise 2 Study of the morphology of mango
Common name: Mango
Botanical name: Mangifera indica
Family: Anacardiaceae
Habit: Perennial, evergreen tree. Medium to large except vine and dwarf types. Depending on
variety, mango tree can be of 7.5 -30.0 m high and 6-18 spread.

Root: Tap root system, branched, well-developed when plant developed from seed. Mango
plant is deep rooted, and the tap/primary root goes as deep as 4.5-7.0 m.

Stem: Strong, long, branched, trunk more or less straight.

Leaf: Simple, evergreen, lanceolate and smooth, spirally arranged on the branches. Mature
leaves are deep green. New leaves are pinkish and drooping. Acute and venation is prominent.
Three to four flushes/year. The terminal branches of 9-10 months old are suitable for fruiting.

Inflorescence: Highly cross pollinated plant. Pollination by insects and air. During the
months of January-February (Magh-Falgun) the mango plants flower. Inflorescences are
branched and pyramid shaped, 10-60 cm long, 6000 flowers/inflorescence. There are 90-95%
male flowers and 5% bisexual or hermaphrodite, which consist of 4-5 stamens (1-2 are fertile
and others are reduced called staminoides). The ovary is single celled but sometimes there
are 3 carpels in a flower.

Fruit: Drupe having distinct epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. The fruit also consists of dorsal
and ventral shoulders, beak, sinus, cavity and glands/dots.

Edible part: Mesocarp.

Fig 4.2 Different parts of mango plant

68
Exercise 3: Study on the morphology of banana
Common name: Banana
Botanical name: Musa sapientum
Family: Musaceae

Habit: Monocot, perennial herbaceous plant.

Root: Well spread, fibrous root system.

Stem: Rhizome is the true underground stem, Pseudostem is formed by the leaf sheaths.

Leaves: Simple, alternate, divided into two parts namely leaf sheath leaf blade. Inner leaf
sheaths are covered by outer ones and forms a compact structure known as pseudostem,
parallel venation with prominent mid rib, large, soft and succulent.

Inflorescence: Spadix with large stalk. It emerges from the centre of the rhizome and goes
through the pseudostem. There are three types of flowers, namely female, hermaphrodite and
male. The female and hermaphrodite flowers remain at the apical portion of the inflorescence.

Fruit: Berry

Edible part: Mesocarp and endocarp.

Fig 4.3 Different parts of banana plant

69
Exercise 4: Study on the morphology of papaya
Common name: Papaya
Botanical name: Carica papaya
Family: Caricaceae

Habit: Dicot, evergreen, herbaceous plant.

Root: Shallow tap root system.

Leaf: Large, smooth pointed, very deeply lobed, simple, petiolate, petiole long, hollow,
alternately arranged on the stem, reticulate venation.

Flower: There are five types of flowers in papaya:

(i) Male: Small in size, produced on long thin stalk, come out from leaf axil, stamen-10.
(ii) Female: 1-3 large flowers produced on thick stalk, emerges from leaf axil, stigma-5, ovary
large.
(iii) Bisexual: Stamen-10, stigma-5, medium in size and born on shoot stalk, hermaphrodite.
(iv) Pentandria: It is like as female but have 5 stamens.
(v) Intermediate: No definite shape and size, bears 2-10 stamens and 5-10 carpels.

Fruit: Berry, female fruit is rounded and bisexual is oblong and ridged.

Edible part: Fleshy mesocarp.

Fig 4.4 Different parts of papaya plant

70
Exercise 5: Study on the morphology of pineapple
Common name: Pineapple
Botanical name: Ananus comosus
Family: Bromeliaceae

Root: Shallow-rooted, seedling produces primary root.

Stem: Short and thick, internode short, stem covered at base by thick leaf base.

Leaves: Simple, thick, narrow, crowded on stem in a bushy arrangement, spiral phylotaxy
with 5-10 sessile with clasping bases.

Inflorescence: Special type of compact terminal inflorescence.

Flower: 100-200 hermaphrodite flowers, subtended by floral bract, sepals-3, short fleshy
petals-3, stamens-6 in whorls, ovary inferior, 3 locular with thick fleshy septet, ovules 14-20
per locules in two rows, style longer than stamens, stigma 3-lobed.

Fruit: Sorosis, compound multiple or syncarp fruit, parthenocarpic, fruit produced due to self
sterility.

Pollination: Self compatible cross pollinated. The flowers open and shed pollen shortly.

Fig 4.5 Different parts of pineapple plant

71
 STUDY 5

STUDY ON PRUNING AND TRAINING PRACTICES

Pruning
Definition of pruning

Pruning is the removal of any plant part usually at the early stage of plant growth to obtain
maximum production, improve yield and quality of fruits, blossom of inflorescence and fruit
bearing ability of the plants.

Objectives of pruning

1. To maintain balance between vegetative growth and reproductive growth.

2. Improve yield and quality
3. To reduce the cost of spraying
4. Reduce intra-plant competition.
5. To ensure continuous growth of plant, especially the commercially desirable part (e.g.
tea leaves)
6. Wound healing
7. Top working

Methods of pruning

(1) Heading back: Heading back is the cutting back the terminal portion of branch. It is
practiced to encourage spreading growth, and it helps constitute a bushy and compact
plant.
(2) Thinning out: Thinning out is the complete removal of a branch to a lateral or main
trunk. It encourages the longer growth of the remaining terminals ie. reduction of
laterals. Thinning our results in a more open structure.

Types of pruning

(1) Ringing or bark pruning, (2) Thinning of flowers and fruits, (3) Leaf pruning, (4) Root
pruning, and (5) Stem or branch pruning.

72
Training
The process by which any part of plants is cut to obtain a definite structure is called training.
Mainly it is done to get a general shape and size or desirable structure of the plants. It is a
means of controlling shape, size and vegetative growth of plants.

Objectives of training

1. To control size, shape and height of the plant for the beautification of the garden.
2. To obtain a strong framework of the plant.
3. To give stronger structures to the plants.
4. To make the plants small and bushy to facilitate the accommodation of large number
of plants in a particular area of land.
5. Different operations such as spraying, leaf collection and fruit collection can be
performed easily.
6. To ensure more productivity and fruit bearing ability of the plants.

Methods of training

(a) Central leader training: In the central leader system of training the trunk is encouraged
to form a central axis with branches distributed laterally up and down and around the stems.
The central axis/leader is the dominant feature of the tree’s framework.

(b) Modified leader training: This system is somewhat intermediate between central leader
and open central types of training.

(c) Open central training: In this system the main stem is terminated and growth is forced
through a number of branches originating rather close to the upper end of the plant.

(d) Espalier training: This method is practiced in case of the vine type fruit plants. This can
be of the following types:

(i) Head system: Only one stem/shoot is allowed to increase with the aid of a stick
support.
(ii) Kniffin system: When the height of the vine becomes more than its terminal
portion of the main stem is trained and two lateral shoots are fixed with wire.
(iii) Bower system: In this system strong espalier are coiled on the line planted vine and
it is allowed to increase on their espalier. Every year, the branches are trained
short, so that each branch contains 2-3 buds.
(iv) Cordon system: This is similar to Bower system. In this system, the espalier is less
wide than the bower system.
(v) Telephone system: In this system the terminal portion of the main stem is trained
after attaining the telephone height (1.5 m).

Materials required for pruning and training

1. Pruning shear
2. Secateurs
3. Hedge shear
4. Jackfruit and jujube plants

73
 STUDY 6

STUDY ON THE COSTS OF PRODUCTION OF IMPORTANT FRUIT

CROPS OF BANGLADESH

Exercise 1: Estimation of cost of production of pineapple in one hectare of land

A. Input cost

(a) Non material cost/operational cost

Sl. Items of operations Pairs of No. of Total cost

No. bullock @ labours @ (Tk.)
...Tk./day ...Tk./day
1 Land preparation (8 ploughing +
laddering)
Land preparation (power tiller cost/ha)
2 Removal of debris
3 Application of basal dose of manures
and fertilizers
4 Layout preparation
5 Preparation of bed and application of
manures and fertilizers on the bed
6 Planting of crowns
7 Weeding
8 Irrigation and drainage
9 Pesticide application
10 Application of hormone
11 Earthing-up
12 Harvesting
13 Watchman
Total

(b) Material input cost

Sl. Items Amount Rate Total cost
No. (Tk.)
1 Crown or sucker 60,000.00
2 Manures and fertilizers
Cowdung 37.5 tons
Mustard oil cake 690 kg
TSP 300 kg
MP 900 kg
Urea 900 kg
3 Irrigation - -
4 Pesticide - -
5 Hormone - -
Total

74
 Total input cost = Non material input cost (a) + material input cost (b)

B. Overhead cost

Sl. No. Items Total cost (Tk.)

1 Interest on the total input cost for 2 years @
11%/anuum
2 Interest on the value of the land (...........) for two
years
OR Cost for lease/ha
3 Miscellaneous cost (5% of the input cost)
Total

 Total cost of production = Input cost + overhead cost

C. Gross income

Sl. No. Items Amount Rate (Tk.) Value (Tk.)

1 Fruits 50 ton ...Tk./kg
2 Crown/suckers 120000 ...Tk./kg
3 Intercropping 100000
Total

D. Net income

Net income = Gross income (C) – total cost of production (A+B)

E. BCR (Benefit Cost Ration)

Net return ÷ Total cost of production

Conclusion
So a farmer can be profited by ..................... from cultivation of pineapple in 1 ha of land.

75
Exercise 2 Estimation of cost of production of papaya in 1 hectare of land

76
Exercise 3: Estimation of cost of production of banana in 1 hectare of land

77
 STUDY 7

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL SOLUBLE SOLIDS IN FRUIT PULP

Exercise 1: Estimation of TSS of ripe apple and mango pulp

Materials required

(1) Refractometer
(2) Mortar and pastel
(3) Petri Dish
(4) Cheese cloth
(5) Thermometer
(6) Temperature Correction Chart
(7) Fruits

Procedure of measuring TSS

Measured amount (5 g) of representative fruit pulp is taken and homogenized in measured

amount of distilled water (1 mL) using mortar and pastel. The TSS contents are measured
directly as oBrix by placing a drop of pulp juice on the prism of a Hand Held Sugar
Refractometer.

For ripe mango pulp, homogenization with distilled water may not be required as a drop of
juice can easily be squeezed through a cheese cloth on the prism. Temperature corrections
would be required using the Temperature Correction Chart (Fig. 7.1) if the room temperature
remains below or above 20 oC.

The Refractometer prism must be cleaned using soft tissue after each sample measured.

Fig 7.1 Temperature Correction Chart

78
The results of the experiment is summarized in Table 7.1

Table 7.1 Calculation of TSS in mango and apple pulps

Sl. No. Types of Initial Refractometer Room Correction TSS (oBrix)

sample reading (TSS, oBrix) temperature Factor*

1 Mango pulp
(ripe)

2 Apple

* If room temperature is smaller than 20 oC the correction factor to be deducted from the
initial Refractometer reading, and if room temperature is greater than 20 oC the correction
factor to be added to the initial Refractometer reading.

79
 STUDY 8

DETERMINATION OF FRUIT VOLUME AND FRUIT DENSITY

Objectives of the study

Volume and density of fruit are also important parameters. After completing the present
study, the students will learn how to accurately measure volume and density of entire fruits of
different types. The present study comprises the following exercise:

Exercise 1: Determination of fruit volume

Materials required

(1) Weighing balance

(2) Glass container
(3) Wetting agent (detergent, Tween 80)

Methods of determination of volume

Method 1 (Displacement volume)

By this method, the volume of a fruit is directly determined by obtaining the displacement
volume by immersing in measured volume of water completely. Firstly, a cylinder containing
known volume of water is taken. Then the fruit is completely immersed into water. The
difference between the initial volume and final volume is the volume of the fruit.

Method 2 (Weighing fruit under water)

The following steps are followed:

(1) A container of water, having enough space for fruit immersion, is weighed using a
balance. This is initial weight.
(2) Fruit to be measured is submerged into water while the container is still on the
weighing balance.
(3) Record the weight of container plus water plus fruit. This is final weight.
(4) The difference in grams between the final weight and initial weight is the volume of
the fruit in cubic centimeter.

Precautions

To avoid the formation of air bubbles on the surface of fruit, few drops of wetting agent, for
examples, Tween 80 or any detergent would be added to the water. The wetting agent reduces
surface tension.

80
Exercise 2: Determination of fruit density
Fruit density or specific gravity is determined by dividing fruit weight with fruit volume. Fruit
weight is determined using weighing balance. Fruit volume is determined using either of the
methods described in Study 7.

Therefore, fruit density or specific gravity is determined using the following formula:

Fruit weight (g)

Fruit density (specific gravity) =
Fruit volume (cc)

81
Bibliography

Bose, T.K., and Mitra, S.K (Eds.). 1990. Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical. Naya Prokash, 206
Bidhan Sarani, Calcutta 700 006, India.

82