History of Arts - 1st Year - Nepali Version

BFA 1st-Year: HISTORY OF ART AND AESTHETICS
snf Oltxf; lsg cWoog ug]{ <

xfdL sf] xf}“ < xfdL sxf“af6 cfPsf xf}“ < xfdL stf hf“b} 5f}“ <
oL tLg cf]6f ;fj{ef}lds k|Zg x'g\ . oL k|Zg sfn, k|s[lt tyf dfgjLo cj:yf;“u hf]l8Psf 5g\ .
snfs[ltn] xfdLnfO{ ;do / :yfg;“u xfd|f] ;DaGwnfO{ kfl/eflift ug{ dbt u5{ .
snfsf] Oltxf;sf] nIo snfsf] pTklQ, cy{ tyf p2]Zo Pjd\ ljZjsf ljljw ;+:s[ltx¿df ljsl;t
snfs[ltsf Jofks z[ªv \ nfnfO{ a'´fpg' xf] . snfsf] Oltxf; eGgfn] snfs[ltsf ;h{sx¿, ltgdf k|o'St
dfWod, ltgsf pkof]lutf, ltgsf] ;dLIffTds cWoognufot ltgsf] j|mdfut Oltxf;sf] cWoog klg xf] .
snf Oltxf;sf] cWoogn] JolStdf b[Zout ;r]tgfsf] ljsf; u/fO{ snfs[ltsf] ljj]rgf ug]{ l;ksf]
ljsf; u/fpgdf ;3fp k'¥ofp“5 .
ljljw sfnv08df lgld{t ljleGg snfs[ltnfO{ cjnf]sg tyf t'ngf ub}{ snfsf cg]sf}“ kIf Pjd\
cfofdnfO{ lrGb} snfsf ;f/nfO{ a'‰g ;lsG5 . jf:tjdf snf Oltxf; eg]sf] cfh ljZjel/sf
;ª\u|xfnox¿df ;lhPsf snfs[ltsf dxfg\ ;h{sx¿sf cfZro{hgs ufyf x'g\ .
gjLg k|ljlwsf If]qdf dfgj hfltsf] cGj]if0f tyf pknlAwsf ljljw r/0fx¿ klg snf Oltxf;df
k|ltljlDat ePsf x'G5g\, h:t} M lk|G6d]lsª, lrqsf/Lsf gjLgtd /ª tyf dfWod, d"lt{ /rgfsf k4ltx¿
cflb .
snf Oltxf;sf] cWoog s]jn Oltxf;sf] cWoog xf]Og, clkt' of] ;f}Gbo{ af/]sf] cWoog klg xf] .
snfsf/x¿sf nflu snf Oltxf;sf] cWoog t ´g\ ckl/xfo{ 5 . ljutsf snfsf/x¿n] ckgfPsf
dfWod, k4lt tyf z}nLnfO{ a'‰g / pgLx¿sf] cleJolStzLn ;fdYo{;“u kl/lrt x'gsf nflu klg
snfsf/x¿n] snf Oltxf;sf] cWoog ug'{ h?/L x'G5 . Oltxf;sf] cWoogdfk{mt xfdL ctLtsf
snfsf/x¿sf s[lt /rgfsf p2]Zo, k|]/0ff, kfZj{syfnfO{ klg a'‰g ;S5f}“ .
snfsf] Oltxf; dfgj hfltsf] l;h{gzLntfsf] Oltxf;af/] cWoog xf] . o;n] dfgj dfqdf lglxt b[Zout
Pjd\ j0f{;';ª\ult;lxt hl6n dgf]efjnfO{ cleJoSt ug{;Sg] IfdtfnfO{ a'‰g xfdLnfO{ ;Ifd agfOlbG5 .
snf Oltxf;n] snfsf/ tyf snfs[lt;“u ;DalGwt zAbfjnL;“u klg xfdLnfO{ kl/lrt u/fOlbG5 .
snfdf tTsfnLg sfnv08sf] ;+:s[lt k|ltljlDat ePsf] x'G5, / xfdLn] hlt dfqfdf ljutnfO{ a'‰b}
hfG5f}“, ;f]xL lx;fan] jt{dfgnfO{ ´g\ /fd|f] a'‰g ;Ifd aG5f}“ .
History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 1

PsfO Ps M kfZrfTo snfsf] cWoog (Western Art Studies)
kl/R5]]b ! M o'/f]ksf] k|fu}ltxfl;s snf (Prehistoric Art of Europe)
9'ªu\ ] o'u
k[YjLdf dfgjsf ¿kdf hLjsf] ljsf;j|mdsf] Oltxf; lgs} nfdf] /x]sf] 5 . o;af/] sltko kIfx¿ cBflk
clglZrt Pjd\ ljjfbf:kb g} /x]sf 5g\ . cfheGbf sl/a b'O{ nfv jif{ cufl8 k[YjLdf ‘xf]df] ;flkoG;’
(Homo Sapiens) hfltsf] dfgj ;d'bfo b]vfk/]sf] lyof] . o;s} xf“uf dflgPsf] jt{dfg dfgj hfltsf]
k"j{hsf ¿kdf lrlgg] ‘xf]df] ;flkoG; ;flkoG;’ (Homo Sapiens Sapiens) sf] pTklQ Ps nfv la; xhf/
jif{b]lv Ps nfv jif{cufl8 ePsf] dflgG5 . cg]sf}“ cg';Gwfg tyf k'/ftflŒjs vf]hx¿sf cfwf/df
clwsf+z j}1flgsx¿åf/f :yflkt dtcg';f/ cfw'lgs dfgjx¿ clk|msfaf6 j|mdzM Pl;of / o'/f]k x'“b}
cGttM c:6«]lnof, pQ/ cd]l/sf / blIf0f cd]l/sf;Dd k}mlnPsf lyP . pknAw k|df0fx¿n] ;ª\s]t
u/]cg';f/ dfgj hfltsf] of] lj:t[t rnv]n Ps nfv jif{b]lv k}“lt; xhf/ jif{ cufl8sf] cjlwdf ePsf]
lyof] .
k|fu}ltxfl;s tYox¿af/] l;nl;nfa4 cWoogsf] yfngL sl/a b'O{ ;o jif{ cufl8b]lv dfq ePsf] lyof] .
pGgfO;f}“ ztfAbLsf k'/ftŒjljb\x¿n] ljleGg If]qdf kQf nfu]sf 9'ªu\ fsf cf}hf/x¿, xltof/x¿ tyf
cfs[ltx¿nfO{ b[li6ut u/]/ k|f/lDes dfgj hfltsf] ljsf;sf] sfnv08nfO{ ‘kfiff0f o'u’ cyf{t\ ‘9'ª\u] o'u’
(Stone Age) sf] ;+1f lbPsf lyP .
cfw'lgs cg';Gwftfx¿n] 9'ªu\ ] o'unfO{ ‘Koflnof]lnlys lkl/o8’ (Paleolithic Period) cyf{t\ k|frLg kfiff0f
o'u / ‘lgof]lnlys lkl/o8’ (Neolithic Period) cyf{t\ gj–kfiff0f o'udf ljefhg u/]sf 5g\ . s]xL If]qdf
k|frLg kfiff0f o'u / gj–kfiff0f o'u larsf] sfnv08nfO{ ‘d];f]lnlys’ (Mesolithic Period) cyf{t\
‘dWo–kfiff0f o'u’ sf ¿kdf juL{s/0f ul/Psf] 5 .
k|frLg kfiff0f o'uaf6 gj–kfiff0f o'udf k|j]zsf] ;do e"uf]ncg';f/ k[ys /x]sf] 5 . sltko If]qdf
gj–kfiff0f o'usf] k|f/De kl5 dfq ePsf] lyof], / cfheGbf c7\7fO; xhf/ jif{ cufl8;Dd dfq sfod
/x]sf] lyof] .
sl/a Ps nfv jif{cufl8 dWo–kfiff0f o'usf] pQ/f4{df o'/f]kdf ‘lgoG8/yn’ (Neanderthal) hfltsf
dflg;x¿ b]vfk/]sf lyP . logLx¿nfO{ xf]df] ;flkoG; (Homo sapiens) hfltsf] xf“uf dflgPsf] 5 .
;g\ !*%& df hd{gLsf] lgoG8/ pkTosf (Neander Valley) sf] Pp6f u'kmfdf o; hfltsf dflg;sf]
x8\8L e]l6\6Psf] lyof] . ;f]xL 7fp“sf] gfdaf6 lognfO{ ‘lgoG8/yn’ gfds/0f ul/Psf] lyof] . lgoG8/yn
dfgjsf] x8\8L o'/f]k / dWok"j{ Pl;ofsf ljleGg 7fp“df klg kfOPsf 5g\ .
k'/ftflŒjs cg';Gwfgaf6 lgoG8/ynx¿n] ;j{k|yd d[t JolStsf z/L/nfO{ uf8]/ ltgsf] cGTo]li6 ug]{
;+:sf/sf] ;'?cft u/]sf lyP eGg] k'li6 x'g cfPsf] 5 . pgLx¿ d[tssf] :d[ltdf p;nfO{ uf8]sf] 7fp“df
s]xL 9'ª\ufx¿ /fv]/ To;sf jl/kl/ /]vflrq agfp“y] eGg] cg'dfg ul/Psf] 5 . pgLx¿n] k|of]u ug]{ u/]sf
y'k|} cf}hf/x¿ klg k|fKt ePsf 5g\ . pgLx¿ cfuf] afNy] / lr;f]af6 aRg u'kmfleq a:y] eGg] tYo klg
k'li6 ePsf] 5 . ;DejtM pgLx¿ cfÇgf] lhpnfO{ hgfj/sf 5fnfaf6 9fSy], / clxn]sf dflg; ´}“ pgLx¿
bfof“ xftsf] a9L k|of]u uy]{ . xhf/f}“ jif{;Dd o'/f]kdf o; hfltsf] pkl:ylt /x]sf] lyof] .
cfheGbf rfln; xhf/ jif{b]lv k}“lt; xhf/ jif{cufl8 zf/Ll/s tyf dfgl;s ¿kn] c´ ljsl;t dfgj
;d'bfosf ¿kdf ‘j|mf]–dfUgf]g’ (Cro-Magnon) hflt b]vfk/]sf] lyof] . lgoG8/yn dfgjx¿nfO{ logLx¿n]
lj:yflkt u/]sf x'g'k5{ eGg] cg'dfg ul/Psf] 5 . logLx¿ k"0f{ ¿kn] ‘cfw'lgs dfgj’ lyP / logLx¿sf]
zf/Ll/s :j¿k clxn]sf dfgj hflt;“u w]/} xb;Dd ldNYof] .
k|mfG;sf] 8f]h{g pkTosf (Dordogne Valley) df cjl:yt j|mf]–dfUgf]g u'kmf (Cro-Magnon Cave) df ´G8}
!=*# ld6/ cUnf] dfgj cl:yk~h/ k|fKt ePsf] lyof] . o; hfltnfO{ ;f]xL u'kmfsf] gfdaf6 ‘j|mf]–dfUgf]g
dfgj’ (Cro-Magnon Man) gfd lbOPsf] lyof] . lognfO{ ‘DofU8fn]lgoG;’ (Magdalenians) klg eG5g\ /
pgLx¿sf] ;+:s[ltnfO{ ‘DofU8fn]lgog ;+:s[lt’ (Magdalenian Culture) elgG5 . oL ;fdflhs k|f0fL lyP /
wfld{s cg'i7fgdf ljZjf; uy]{ . logLx¿ l;sf/L hLjg ofkg uy]{, / sfnfGt/df logn] j|mdzM kz' kfng
ug{ tyf cf+lzs ¿kdf v]tLkftL ug{ l;s]sf lyP . ;DejtM oL cflbd dfgjx¿ cfÇgf lhpnfO{ /ª\ufp“y]
tyf ¿v jf ;]/f]k]m/f]sf k|fs[lts jftfj/0fnfO{ lrq cflbaf6 l;“ufy]{ . log} j|mf]–dfUgf]gx¿n] agfP/ uPsf
d"lt{ / lrqaf6 kfZrfTo snfsf] Oltxf; k|f/De x'G5 .
k|fu}ltxfl;s snfaf/] vf]h tyf cg';Gwfg lg/Gt/ hf/L 5 / c´ sltko tYo k|sfzdf cfpg af“sL g}
5.
u'kmf–lrq
o'/f]ksf ljleGg efu, h:t} M k|mfG;, O6nL, :k]g cflb ljleGg :yfgdf r6\6fg aflx/ / cg]sf}“ u'kmfx¿sf
e'O“, leQf, 5t cflbdf kfiff0f o'uLg dflg;x¿n] agfPsf lrq, /]vflrq, s'“bfO, cd"t{ ;fª\s]lts lrx\g
cflbsf gd'gfx¿ k|z:t k|fKt ePsf 5g\ . lx+;|s hgfj/x¿af6 ;'/lIft /xgsf nflu pgLx¿ tL u'kmfleq
a:y] . ltg} u'kmfsf leQfdf tL hgfj/dfly cfÇgf ljho jf qf;sf] cleJolSt:j¿k pgLx¿ hgfj/s}
lrq agfp“y] . tL u'kmfleq ;"o{sf] k|sfz l5b}{gYof], ctM pgLx¿ cfuf] afNy], / ltgs} cfnf]sdf lrq
agfp“y] .
oL u'kmf–lrqdf l;+x, u}“8f, x'“8f/ cflbsf cltl/St ;f“9], 3f]8f, ufO{, xl/0f cflbsf cfs[ltsf] afx'No
b]lvG5 . o;afx]s kGhfsf 5fkx¿ tyf /ªsf yf]Knfx¿ klg kfOPsf 5g\ . oL lrqdf dfgj cfs[ltx¿
cToGt} Go"g /x]sf 5g\ . ;DejtM oL lrqx¿ To; a]nfsf dflg;x¿sf] l;sf/ ;DaGwL wfld{s cg'i7fg
tyf pgLx¿sf] hftLo ;+:sf/;“u ;DalGwt lyP . k|fu}ltxfl;s snfsf ;jf{lws ;'Gb/ kIf eg]sf] ltgdf
k|o'St ;/n t/ ;hLj /]vf / /ªx¿ x'g\ .
pgLx¿ s'g k|ljlwaf6 s;/L lrq n]Vy] eGg] ljifo klg cg';Gwftfx¿sf nflu sf}t'xnsf] ljifo /x]sf]
5 . tL cflbd lrqsf/x¿ ljljw 9ª\uaf6 lrqfª\sg uy]{ . cf}“nfaf6 /ª n]kg uy]{ . hgfj/sf /f}“ tyf
jg:kltsf /];faf6 /ª\ufª\sg uy]{ . vf]j|mf xf8 / lgufnf]af6 k'ms]/ lrqdf /ª 5y]{ . pgLx¿ lrqdf
5fofsf] klg k|efj b]vfpg] k|of; uy]{ .
cflbd o'usf lrqsf/x¿ ljleGg tl/sfaf6 cfjZos /ªx¿ k|fKt uy]{ . u]? df6faf6 /ftf], kx]“nf] tyf
v}/f] /ª agfp“y] . sfnf] /ªsf nflu dfuflgh 8fOcS;fO8 jf uf]n k|of]u uy]{ . ljz]if1x¿sf]
cg';Gwfgcg';f/ r6\6fgL ;txdfly /ª ;lhn} / :yfoL ¿kdf 6f“l;of];\, o;sf nflu pgLx¿ /ªsf
8NnfnfO{ lk“w]/ w'nf] agfO{ u'kmfleq /x]sf kfgL -SoflN;od sfaf]{g]6sf] c+z a9L /x]sf]_, hgfj/sf af];f],
jg:kltsf /;, /ut jf lk;fa cflb;“u ld;fp“y] eGg] k'li6 ePsf] 5 .
xfn;Dd kQf nfu]sf kfiff0f o'uLg dflg;x¿n] agfPsf lrq, /]vflrq, s'“bfO cflbsf gd'gfx¿ /x]sf s]xL
dxŒjk"0f{ u'kmf tyf :yfgx¿ o; k|sf/ /x]sf 5g\ M
– ;fpj] (Chauvet), k|mfG;, #)))) O= k"= b]lv
– ckf]nf] !! (Apollo 11), gfldlaof, @%))) O= k"= b]lv
– s:Sj] (Cosquer), k|mfG;, @%))) O= k"= b]lv
– k]s–dn]{ (Pech-Merle), k|mfG;, @%))) O= k"= b]lv
– n:Sj] (Lascaux), k|mfG;, !&))) O= k"= b]lv
– kmf]–“ b]–uf]d] (Font de Gaume), k|mfG;, !&))) O= k"= b]lv
– nf kf;]xf (La Pasiega), :k]g, !^))) O= k"= b]lv
– cN6fld/f (Altamira), :k]g, !%))) O= k"= b]lv
cN6fld/f
cN6fld/f (Altamira) u'kmf :k]gsf] pQ/L efudf r6\6fgx¿sf] vf]“rleq cjl:yt 5 . of] u'kmf
;g\ !*^* df df]8]:6f] So'lanf (Modesto Cubillas) gfdsf Ps hgf l;sf/Ln] ;+of]ujz kQf nufPsf
lyP . ;g\ !*&% df 8g df;]{lngf] (Don Marcelino) eg]/ lrlgg] :k]gsf k'/ftŒjljb\ df;]{lngf] ;fGh 8]
;Gt'nf (Marcelino Sanz de Santuola) n] cN6fld/fsf] cGj]if0f ;'? u/]sf lyP . o;} j|mddf pgsL 5f]/L
dfl/of (Maria) n] o; u'kmfleq klxnf] lrq b]v]sL lyOg\ . ;g\ !**) df df;]{lngf]n] cN6fld/fsf lrqx¿
;lxt cfÇgf] n]v k|sflzt u/]sf lyP . tyflk nfdf] cg';GwfgkZrft\ ;g\ !()@ df cfP/ dfq tL
lrqnfO{ k|fu}ltxfl;s sfnsf x'g\ eGg] dfGotf lbOPsf] lyof] .
cN6fld/f u'kmf kfiff0fo'uLg u'kmflrqx¿sf] clt ;d[4 / pTs[i6 e08f/sf ¿kdf /x]sf] 5 . o; u'kmfleq
sf]l/Psf lrqx¿ P3f/ xhf/ jif{b]lv ;f]x| xhf/ jif{cufl8 dfU8fn]lgog hfltsf dflg;x¿n] agfPsf
x'g'k5{ eGg] cg'dfg k'/ftTjljb\x¿n] u/]sf 5g\ . kfiff0fo'uLg u'kmfdWo] ;a}eGbf klxnf kQf nfu]sf] u'kmf
ePsf]n] klg o;sf] dxŒj c´ a9L 5 .
cN6fld/fleq ljleGg sIfx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . o; u'kmfsf leQf / 5t sfnf] / /ftf] /ªn] jf leQf s'“b]/
agfPsf cg]sf}“ lrqx¿n] el/k"0f{ 5g\ . oxf“ lrlqt cfs[ltx¿df d"ntM hª\unL ;f“9]x¿sf] afx'No 5 . tL
!=% ld6/b]lv @ ld6/;Dd 7"nf 5g\ . u'kmfsf] leQfdf sf]l/Psf lrqx¿df hª\unL ;f“9]sf cltl/St d[u,
a“8]n cflbsf cfs[ltx¿ klg /x]sf 5g\ . logdf k|o'St /ªdf /ftf] df6f]af6 k|fKt k'm;|f] kx]“nf] jf u]? /ª
tyf s]xL sfnf] tyf v}/f] /ªsf] k|fwfGo /x]sf] 5 . o;afx]s oxf“ dfgj h:tf] b]lvg] s'“bfO lrqx¿ tyf
xftsf k~hfsf 5fkx¿ klg /x]sf 5g\ . oL lrqsf lrqsf/x¿sf] bIftf hgfj/x¿sf] pko'St zf/Ll/s
cg'kftn] klg k|:6\ofp“5 . pgLx¿ tL lrqdf ljleGg hgfj/sf k|s[lt :ki6 Ńsfpg ;kmn ePsf 5g\ .
Bison, Altamira cave, Spain, c.11000-16000 BCE

n:Sj]
k|mfG;sf] j]h] (Vézère) gbLsf] afof“ lsgf/df cjl:yt n:Sj] (Lascaux) u'kmf kfiff0fo'uLg ;'Gb/ lrqx¿sf]
;d[4 e08f/sf ¿kdf /x]sf] 5 . of] u'kmf ;g\ !($) ;]K6]Da/ !@ tfl/vsf lbg rf/ hgf lszf]/x¿n]
ck|Toflzt ¿kdf kQf nufPsf lyP . o; If]qdf kfOPsf u'kmflrqdWo] o; u'kmfsf lrqx¿ a9L :ki6,
rlDsnf, cfsif{s / ;'/lIft cj:yfdf /x]sf 5g\ . oL lrqx¿ sl/a !$,%)) O= k"= sf x'g\ eGg] cg'dfg
ul/Psf] 5 .
n:Sj]leq uf9f Pjd\ rlDsnf] /ftf], kx]“nf], v}/f] tyf sfnf] /ªn] agfOPsf Ps xhf/ kf“r ;o cf]6feGbf
a9L hgfj/sf clt ;'Gb/ cfs[ltx¿ lrlqt 5g\ . o; cltl/St oxf“ cg]sf}“ cd"t{ Pjd\ ;fª\s]lts
lrx\gx¿ klg /x]sf 5g\ .
d'Vo k|j]zåf/sf] ;'?b]lv g} leQfsf tnb]lv dfly ;Ddsf efu hgfj/sf eJo lrqx¿af6 ;';lHht 5g\ .
oLdWo] 3f]8fsf dfq tLg ;o ;f7Lcf]6f cfs[ltx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . o;afx]s d[u, cgf{, hªunL afv|f, l;+x,
efn', Ajf“;f] cflbsf lrqx¿ /x]sf 5g\ .
n:Sj]sf] ;a}eGbf 7'nf] lrqzfnfnfO{ ‘;f“9]sf] sIf’ (The Hall of the Bulls) gfd lbOPsf] 5 . csf]{ lrq sIfdf
3f]8f, afx|l;ª\uf / hª\unL ;f“9s] f lrqx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . u'kmf leqsf] uf]nfsf/ sIfnfO{ ‘s'“bfO sIf’
(Chamber of Engravings) gfd lbOPsf] 5 . oxf“ s'“b]/ /ª\ufOPsf 5 ;o cf]6feGbf a9L cfs[ltx¿ /x]sf
5g\ . d'Vo lrqzfnfb]lv k/sf] nfdf] a/G8fnfO{ ‘jgla/fnf sIf’ (Chamber of the Felines) gfd lbOPsf] 5 .
s'“bfOsf] sIfsf] k5fl8 clt cfsif{s dflgPsf] ‘d[t k'?ifsf] b[Zo’ (Shaft of the Dead Man) /x]sf] 5 .
n:Sj]df lrq x]g{ cfpg] bz{sx¿sf] a9\bf] eL8af6 jftfj/0fLo c;/sf sf/0f oxf“sf u'kmflrqx¿ lalu|g
yfn]sfn] xfn ;j{;fwf/0fnfO{ oxf“ k|j]z lgif]w ul/Psf] 5 .
The Aurochs, Lascaux cave, France, c.15000-14500 BCE
The Horse, Lascaux cave, France, c.15000-13000 BCE, 1.42 m long

;fpj]
;g\ !(($ df k|mfG;sf] cf8]{s 3f6L (Ardèche Gorge) df Pp6f e"ldut u'kmf kQf nfu]sf] lyof] . o;
u'kmfleq Psbd ;'/lIft cj:yfdf /x]sf k|fu}ltxfl;s sfnsf cg]sf}“ lrqx¿n] l;“ufl/Psf sl/a
$)) ld6/ nfdf lrqsIfx¿sf] ljzfn ;~hfn e]l6Psf lyP .
k|mfG;df clxn];Dd kfOPsf u'kmfdWo] ;fpj] (Chauvet) ;jf{lws 7'nf] /x]sf] 5 . o; u'kmfleq tLg ;o
cf]6feGbf a9L lelQlrq, s'“bfO, v'6\6fsf 5fk cflbsf cltl/St kfiff0fo'uLg efn'sf cl:yk~h/ tyf
r6\6fgdfly 6fª\luPsf] efn'sf] Pp6f vKk/ klg kfOPsf 5g\ . o; u'kmfleq dfgj v'6\6fsf s]xL 5fkx¿
klg e]l6\6Psf 5g\ .
oxf“ kfOPsf 9'ª\ufsf s'“bfO tyf lrqx¿df l;+x, u}“8f, efn' 3f]8f tyf cGo ljleGg k|f0fLsf cfs[ltx¿
;d]l6Psf 5g\ . logdf u}“8f / 7'nf] cfsf/sf la/fnfsf cfs[ltx¿sf] afx'No /x]sf 5g\ . ;fpj]leq s'n
rf}“tL; cf]6f eLdsfo xfQLsf cfs[ltx¿ kfOPsf 5g\ . o; u'kmfleq lrlqt ‘3f]8f kmns’ (Horse Panel)
tyf ‘l;+x tyf u}“8f kmns’ (The Panel of Lions and Rhinoceroses) oxf“sf ;jf]{Ts[i6 lrqsf ¿kdf /x]sf 5g\ .
/]l8of]sfa{g 8]l6ª k4ltaf6 ul/Psf] cWoogcg';f/ ;fpj]sf lrqx¿ clxn];Dd kfOPsf kfiff0fsfnLg
snfdWo] ;jf{lws k'/fgf] eGg] k|dfl0ft ePsf] 5 . k'/ftTjljb\x¿sf cg';f/ oL lrq #),))) O= k"= df
cp/Ugfl;og sfn (Auragnacian Period) df ag]sf x'g\ . xfn;fn} kQf nfu]sf] u'kmf ePsf]n] o;af/]
k'/ftŒjljb\x¿sf] cWoog c´} hf/L 5 .
The Lion Panel, Chauvet cave, France, c.25000-17000 BCE
d"lt{snf
kfiff0fo'uLg d"lt{snfsf cg]sf}“ gd'gfx¿ o'/f]kel/ ;o cf]6feGbf a9L ;ª\Vofdf kfOPsf 5g\ . j:t'tM
$ ;]= ld= b]lv @% ;]= ld= ;Dd cUnf oL ;;fgf d"lt{df c:jfefljs ¿kn] :y"n z/L/sf gf/L cfs[ltsf]
afx'No /x]sf] 5 . k'/ftŒjljb\x¿n] tL gf/L cfs[ltnfO{ ‘leg;’ (Venus) gfd lbPsf 5g\ . o:tf d"lt{x¿
sdnf] vfnsf 9'ª\ufb]lv lnP/ xf8, x:tLxf8, sf7, df6f cflbaf6 ag]sf 5g\ .
;g\ !()* df cl:6«ofdf kQf nfu]sf] ‘ljn]g8f]k{m leg;’ (Venus of Willendorf), ;g\ !(!! df k|mfG;sf]
8f]h{g (Dordogne) df kQf nfu]sf] ‘n:;]n leg;’ (Venus of Laussel), ;g\ !(@@ df k|mfG;sf] n] l/8f]
u'kmf (Cave of Les Rideaux) df kfOPsf] ‘n]:k'Uo' leg;’ (Venus of Lespugue) cflb k|fu}ltxfl;s sfnsf
dxŒjk"0f{ d"lt{sf ¿kdf lrlgG5g\ . oL d"lt{df k|foM c:jfefljs ¿kn] ´f]lnPsf :tg tyf 7'nf] sd/
b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 .
Venus of Willendorf from Willendorf, Austria, c.25000-21000 BCE. Limestone, 11.5 cm high. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna
Venus of Laussel from Laussel, Dordogne, France, c. 25000-23000 BCE. Limestone, 44 cm high. Musée d'Aquitaine, Bordeaux, France
k|fu}ltxfl;s sfnLg cGo s]xL dxŒjk"0f{ d"lt{x¿ M

– xf]n k]mN; leg; (Hohle Fels Venus), hd{gL, #%)))–$))) O= k"=
– a|f;]Dk' leg; (Brassempouy Venus), k|mfG;, sl/a @^)))–@$))) O= k"=
– n]:k'u] ldg; (Lespugue Venus), k|mfG;, @^)))–@$))) O= k"=
– cf]:6«fjf k]6«sf]le; leg; (Ostrava Petrkovice Venus), r]s l/klAns, sl/a @#))) O= k"=
– nfog–Dofg (Lion-man), xf]n:6]g, hd{gL, sl/a #))))–@^))) O= k"=

kl/R5]]b @ M k|frLg dWok"j{ Pl;ofsf] snf (Art of the Ancient Middle East)
dfgj ;Eotfsf] cf/De

9'ªu\ ] o'usf dflg;x¿nfO{ ;w}“ lx+;|s hgfj/b]lv 8/fP/ a:g'kYof]{ . tL hgfj/af6 aRgsf nflu pgLx¿
cf]8f/ jf u'kmfleq ;d"xdf a:y] . hg;ª\Vof a9\b} uPkl5 pgLx¿sf nflu cf]8f/ jf u'kmfsf]] cefj x'“b}
uof] . kmntM pgLx¿ ¿vdfly drfg agfO{ a:g yfn] . kl5 uP/ drfgx¿ klg ckof{Kt eP / pgLx¿
hldgdf 5fk|f] agfP/ a:g yfn] . 3/ aGg yfn]kl5 dflg;x¿sf] :yfoL a;f]jf; / :yfoL hLjg z}nLsf]
;'?cft eof] . ;dosf] j|md;“u} dfgj ;d'bfon] cfÇgf] cfjZostfcg';f/ cfk"m a:g] 3/x¿nfO{ ljleGg
:j¿k lb“b} uP .
o;/L 3/x¿ ldn]/ ufp“ / ;dfh aGof] . ;dfhsf] /xg;xg, b}lgs lj|mofsnfk cflbsf] oyf]lrt Joj:yf
ldnfpg sfg'g / /Lltlyltsf] Joj:yf x'g yfn] . ufp“x¿ ljsl;t x'“b} ;x/sf ¿k lng yfn] . dfgj
;d'bfon] ;x/sf] ljsf; u/L 3/, ;8s, k'n, oftfoft, vfg]kfgL, 9n cflb ;'Jojl:yt u/L a:g yfn]b]lv
dfgj ;Eotf k|f/De ePsf] lyof] .
dflg;x¿n] v]tLkftL ug{, df;'sf nflu hgfj/x¿ kfNg / :yfoL a:tL lgdf{0f u/L a:g yfn]sf ;Gbe{nfO{
c:6«]lnofsf k'/ftŒjljb\ e]/] uf]8{g l;N8] (Vere Gordon Childe) n] ;g\ !(#% df ‘gj–kfif0f j|mflGt’
(Neolithic Revolution) sf] ;+1f lbPsf lyP .
gj–kfiff0f o'usf dflg;x¿ klg ltgsf kfiff0fo'uLg k"j{hx¿n] h:t} 9'ª\ufsf cf}hf/x¿ k|of]u uy]{ .
k|f/lDes gj–kfiff0f o'usf] k|ljlw tyf hLjg z}nL dWok"j{ Pl;of -sl/a (!#) O= k"=_ / kl5 rLgsf]
kLt;fu/ (Yellow River) tyf ofª\;] (Yangtze) gbL -sl/a &%)) O= k"=_ x'“b} cGoq k}mlnPsf] dflgG5 .
k[YjLdf dfgj ;Eotfsf] ljsf; rf}yf] ;x;|fAbL O:jL ;+jt\k"j{ kZrft\ dWok"j{ Pl;of, OlhK6, rLg /
ef/tdf ePsf] lyof] . tL ;Eotfsf dflg;x¿n] clt ljsl;t ;fdflhs Joj:yf Pjd\ snfTds ;+:s[ltsf]
k"jf{wf/ lgdf{0f u/]sf lyP .
d];f]kf]6fldof
d];f]kf]6fldof (Mesopotamia) k|frLg dWok"j{sf] ;Eotfsf] s]Gb| lyof] . lu|s zAb ‘d];f]’ (meso) cyf{t\
‘dWo’ / ‘kf]6fdf];’ (potamos) cyf{t\ ‘gbL’ af6 ‘d];f]kf]6fldof’ gfds/0f ul/Psf] xf] . of] ;Eotf
clxn]sf] O/fs, O/fg, l;l/of, 6sL{ / ;fpbL c/a;Dd k}mlnPsf] lyof] . of] ;Eotf b'O{ cf]6f gbLx¿ l6lu|;
(Tigris) / o'k|]m6; (Euphrates) sf lsgf/df ljsl;t ePsf] lyof] . ctM o;nfO{ ‘b'O{ gbL larsf] e"efu’
(the land between the rivers) klg elgG5 . l6lu|; / o'k|]m6; k"jL{ 6sL{af6 ;'? eO{ blIf0f–k"j{ lbzftkm{
O/fs x'“b} kl;{ofsf] vf8Ldf ldl;G5 . sl/a $,%))÷$,))) O= k"= df gj–kfiff0f o'usf] cGTokZrft\
d];f]kf]6fldofdf If]qdf ljZjs} klxnf] ;x/ tyf a[xt\ wfld{s :df/sx¿sf] lgdf{0f ;'? ePsf] dflgG5 .
d];f]kf]6fldofnfO{ ljZjs} klxnf] dfgj ;Eotf dflgg] ;'d]/ (Sumer) ;Eotfsf] ynf] dflgG5 . t;y{
o;nfO{ ‘dfgj ;Eotfsf] k|f/De’ klg elgG5 . ljZjs} klxnf] n]vfO k4ltsf] ljsf; ;'d]l/ogx¿n] g}
u/]sf lyP . of] n]vfO k4lt ‘So'g]kmd{’ (Cuneiform) gfp“af6 lrlgG5 . dfgj Oltxf;df klxnf] lnlvt
sfJo, Oltxf;, wfld{s u|Gy, cfly{s l6kf]6 cflb dWok"j{af6 g} k|fKt ePsf 5g\ . ;'d]l/ogx¿ ;'g, rf“bL,
tfdf cflb wft'af6 ef“8fs'8fx¿ tyf u/uxgfx¿ agfpg] sfddf lgs} l;kfn' lyP .

p?s sfn -sl/a $%))–#!)) O= k"=_
jt{dfg O/fsdf kg]{ jsf{ (Worka) k|frLg d];f]kf]6fldofsf] p¿s (Uruk) gu/sf ¿kdf lrlgGYof] . of]
gu/ klxnf] :jtGq ;'d]l/og gu/–/fHo lyof] . Ps xhf/ Ps8 e"lddf k}mlnPsf] o; gu/df b'O{ cf]6f
a[xt\ jf:t' ;+/rgfsf eUgfjz]ifx¿ kfOPsf lyP .
jsf{sL lz/
p¿sdf l;ª\ud/d/df ag]sf] Pp6f d'xf/–d"lt{ kfOPsf] lyof] . o;nfO{ ‘jsf{sL lz/’ (the Warka Head)
gfd lbOPsf] 5 . k'/ftŒjljb\x¿sf cg';f/ of] s'g} b]jLsf] cfs[lt x'g'k5{ . ´6\6 x]bf{ ;]tf] dv'G8f] h:tf]
b]lvg] of] d"lt{ ;DejtM d"n ¿kdf sf7sf] 6fpsf]dfly vf]nsf ¿kdf /x]sf] lyof] . ;g\ @))# sf] clk|n
dlxgfdf O/fsdf ePsf] bª\ufdf j|'m4 eL8n] O/fssf] /fli6«o ;ª\u|xfnodf cfj|md0f ubf{ of] dxŒjk"0f{ d"lt{
x/fPsf] lyof] t/ zL3| g} O/fssf clwsf/Lx¿ o;nfO{ vf]Hg ;kmn ePsf lyP . xfn of] d"lt{
;ª\u|xfnosf] oyf:yfgdf /flvPsf] 5 .
Mask of Warka, 3200–3000 BCE, Alabaster, 91.4 cm high, Iraq Museum, Baghdad
lhu'/ft
k|frLg d];f]kf]6fldofsf afl;Gbfx¿sf] dfGotfcg';f/ k|To]s gu/nfO{ O{Zj/sf] ;+/If0f k|fKt lyof], /
O{Zj/sf] ;]jf ug{' o;sf afl;Gbfx¿sf] st{Jo lyof] . log} dfGotfaf6 clek|]l/t eP/ pgLx¿n] kj{t
h:tf] cfsf/sf b]jfnox¿sf] lgdf{0f u/]sf lyP . o:tf b]jfnox¿ ‘lhu'/ft’ (Ziggurat) sf gfdaf6
lrlgG5g\ . ‘lhu'/ft’ zAb cl;l/og zAbaf6 lnOPsf] xf] . o;sf] cy{ xf] — dfly p7]sf] jf p“rf] .
lhu'/ftn] ‘O{Zj/sf] kj{t’ eGg] cy{ a'´fp“5 .
df6f / O“6faf6 ag]sf lhu'/ftnfO{ /ª\uLg rdsbf/ O“6f tyf :tDex¿af6 ;hfOGy] . txtx kb}{ uPsf]
lhu'/ftsf] 6'Kkf]df dlGb/ agfOGYof] . o;sf] hu of]hgf ljz]if u/]/ rf/s'g] / p7fg ;f]´} dflytk{m
x'GYof] . pkf;gfsf lgldQ dlGb/leq d'Vo d"lt{ /flvPsf] x'GYof] .
p?ssf] lhu'/ft
p?sdf kfOPsf] ;a}eGbf k'/fgf] lhu'/ft sl/a #%))–#))) O= k"= df ag]sf] lyof] . o;df df6fsf
;+/rgfdfly O“6f tyf afn'jf / cnsqf (asphalt) sf] ld>0f k|of]u ul/Psf] lyof] . aflx/L leQfdf ;]tf]
/ª kf]ltPsf] sf/0f o;nfO{ ‘Zj]t dlGb/’ (White Temple) sf] gfd lbOPsf] 5 . nueu $% ld6/sf]
cfwf/ e"lddfly plePsf] of] lhu'/ft sl/a ( ld6/ cUnf] lyof] . ;DejtM of] dlGb/ ;"ob{ ]j cg'
(Anu) sf] :d[ltdf lgdf{0f ul/Psf] lyof] .
p/sf] lhu'/ft
p/ (Ur) sf] lhu'/ft sl/a @!)) O= k"= df ag]sf] lyof] . p?ssf] lhu'/ftsf] t'ngfdf o;sf] lgdf{0f
k4lt a9L hl6n lsl;dsf] lyof] . tLg txdf ag]sf] o; lhu'/ftsf] ;a}eGbf dfly dlGb/ lyof], /
dlGb/;Dd k'Ugsf nflu 5f]6f] e¥ofª /flvPsf] lyof] . o;sf] kmn}“rf;Dd k'Ugsf nflu tLg cf]6f sf]N6f]
k/]sf e¥ofªx¿ lyP, h'g dflyNnf tx;Dd k'Ugsf nflu agfOPsf] 7f8f] k|j]z åf/df uP/ ldNy] . k|To]s
e¥ofªdf ;o cf]6f v'8l\ snfx¿ lyP .
jf:t'snfdf lvnfg (arch) sf] k|of]u ljZjnfO{ g} d];f]kf]6fldofsf jf:t'sf/x¿sf] pNn]vgLo b]g lyof] .
jf:t'snfdf o:tf lvnfgsf] k|rng oxL“af6 OlhK6, l;Gw / u|L; k'u]sf] lyof] . d];f]kf]6fldofsf]
jf:t'snfdf st} st} :tDex¿ klg /x]sf 5g\ .
d];f]kf]6fldofsf ejgx¿df 9'ªu\ fsf] k|of]u Tolt ul/Psf] kfO“b}g . 9'ªu\ f / sf7sf] cefjn] ubf{ oxf“sf
3/ tyf ejgx¿ k|foM df6fsf O“6faf6 agfOGy] . 3fddf ;'sfOPsf sf“rf O“6f g} oxf“sf] jf:t'snfsf
d'Vo ;fwg lyof] . 3/sf] aflx/L tyf leqL efu rlDsnf] /ª tyf ;]tf] df6f] kf]t]/ ;hfOGy] . df6fsf O“6f
agfpg] k|ljlwsf] ;'?cft d];f]kf]6fldofaf6 g} ePsf] dflgG5 .
d"lt{sf/L ul/Psf] k"mnbfgL
p?sdf sdnf] ;]tf] 9'ª\uf (alabaster) df ag]sf] ‘d"lt{sf/L ul/Psf] k"mnbfgL’ (the Sculpted Vase) kfOPsf]
5, h'g ;DejtM b]jL OgfGgf (Inanna) sf] :d[ltdf dgfOg] gof“ jif{sf] kj{;“u ;DalGwt lyof] . o;df nf]–
l/lnkm cfs[ltx¿ rf/ nx/df s'“lbPsf 5g\ . klxnf] nx/df 6f]s/Ldf kmnk"mn yfKb} u/]sL b]jL
-;DejtM OgfGgf_ sf] cfs[lt /x]sf] 5 . bf];|f] nx/df ljljw ;fdu|Lx¿ af]s]/ bfof“af6 afof“tk{m lx“8b\ }
u/]sf s]xL ljj:q k'¿if–cfs[ltx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . t];|f] nx/df dflyNnf] nx/sf] ljk/Lt lbzftk{m uO/x]sf
e]8fsf cfs[ltx¿ s'“lbPsf 5g\ . rf}yf] nx/df Pskl5 csf]{ u/L s'“lbPsf hf}sf 8f“7 / xTs]nf /x]sf
5g\ . o; k"mnbfgLsf] prfO (!=$ ;]ld /x]sf] 5 .
Sculptured vase from Uruk, c. 3500-300 BCE Alabaster, 91.4 cm high, Iraq Museum, Baghdad
a]ngfsf/ l;nx¿
d];f]kf]6fldof ;Eotfsf] snfdf a]ngfsf/ l;nx¿ (cylinder seals) sf] dxŒjk"0f{ :yfg /x]sf] 5 . lognfO{
s'“bfO snf (glyptic art) sf] ju{df /flvPsf] 5 . ;a}eGbf k'/fgf l;nx¿ p¿s sfnsf /x]sf 5g\ . o:tf
l;nx¿ JolSt ljz]ifsf] k|e'Tj bzf{pg, cfly{s ljj/0f Pjd\ sfg'gL clen]v /fVg] k|of]hgsf nflu
pkof]u ul/GYof] . oL l;ndf tLg xhf/ jif{eGbf a9L cjlwsf] d];f]kf]6fldofsf] cfs[lt snf tyf lrqfTds
z}nLsf] ljsl;t ńs b[Zodfg x'G5 .
oL l;nnfO{ d];f]kf]6fldofsf lzNksf/x¿sf] sNkgf, j0f{g tyf oyfy{ 36gfnfO{ cleJoSt ug]{ Ifdtfsf]
b[i6fGtsf ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . logdf d"ntM e]8f, uf]? cflb hgfj/x¿ tyf o'4/t hgfj/sf
cfs[ltx¿sf] k|fwfGo /x]sf] 5 .
;'d]/ M k|f/lDes /fhj+z sfn -sl/a @*))–@#)) O= k"=_
;'d]/ If]q d];f]kf]6fldofsf] blIf0fL efudf kYof]{ . o; If]qdf v]tLkftLsf] 7'nf] ljsf; ePsf] lyof] .
;'d]l/ogx¿n] oxf“ gx/sf] lgdf{0f u/L l;“rfOsf] Joj:yf u/]sf lyP . ljZjs} klxnf] n]vfO–k4ltsf]
ljsf; ;'d]l/ogx¿n] g} u/]sf lyP . of] n]vfO–k4lt ‘So'g]kmd{’ (Cuneiform) sf] gfp“af6 lrlgG5 .
;'d]l/ogx¿ ;'g, rf“bL, tfdf cflb wft'af6 ef“8fs'“8f tyf u/uxgfx¿ agfpg] sfddf lgs} l;kfn' lyP .
p/sf] b'O{ cf]6f ;dflw:yndf s]xL ;'g tyf hjfx/ftsf s07dfnfsf] c+z kfOPsf 5g\ . oL uxgf
#%))–@*)) O= k"= larsf] x'g'k5{ eGg] cg'dfg ul/Psf] 5 . ljZjd} xfn;Dd k|fKt k|frLg cfe"if0fdWo]
oL ;a}eGbf k'/fgf 7xl/Psf 5g\ .
6]n c;df/
k|f/lDes /fhj+z sfndf wfld{s ;Dk|bfosf y'k|} ;;fgf cfs[ltx¿ ag]sf lyP . ;g\ !(#@–## df ul/Psf]
pTvggdf jt{dfg aubfbb]lv sl/a *) lsld pQ/–k"j{ lbzfdf 6]n c;df/ (Tel Asmar) l:yt ca'
dlGb/ (Abu Temple) df r'g9'ªu\ f / ;]tf] 9'ªu\ fdf ag]sf d"lt{x¿sf] ;d"x kfOPsf lyP . sl/a @())–
@^)) O= k"= df ag]sf oL d"lt{ ;d"xdf b'j} xft hf]8]/ kfqf] lnO{ 7f8f] plePsf, 7'nf cf“vf ePsf dfgj
cfs[ltx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . logdf k'¿if–cfs[ltx¿n] sd/b]lv tn hfdf nufPsf 5g\ eg]
gf/L–cfs[ltx¿n] sf“w;Dd j:q klx/]sf 5g\ . oL cfs[ltx¿ d"n ¿kdf ;+o'St lyP jf cnu cnu,
;f]af/] s]xL yfxf kfpg ;lsPsf] 5}g . logdf ;a}eGbf cUnf] cfs[lt sl/a &^ ;]ld cUnf] 5 .
A group of statues from the Abu Temple at Tell Asmar, c. 2700-2500 BCE Limestone, alabaster, and gypsum, tallest figure approx. 76.3 cm high, Iraq
Museum, Baghdad
p/
p/ (Ur) gu/ d];f]kf]6fldofsf] ;a}eGbf ;d[4 ;x/sf] ¿kdf lrlgGYof] . ;g\ !(@)–#) sf] bzsdf o;
If]qdf ul/Psf] pTvggdf a]nfotsf ;/ lnof]gf8{ j'NnL (Sir Leonard Woolley) n] kQf nufPsf
k'/ftflŒjs vf]hnfO{ ‘zfxL lrxfg’ (Royal Cemetry) sf] gfd lbOPsf] 5 . oxf“ ;'gsf 3f]8f uf8L, jfB
oGq, d"lt{, cfe"if0f cflb kfOPsf 5g\ .
jL0ff jfB oGq
p/df kfOPsf] ‘jL0ff jfB oGq’ (Lyre Soundbox) df b]lvg] sfl/u/L clt pTs[i6 bhf{sf] 5 . of] jfB
oGq /fgL k'cfaL (Queen Puabi) sf] lrxfgdf kfOPsf] lyof] . o; jfB oGqn] k|frLg ;'d]/x¿sf] ;ª\uLt
k|ltsf] cg'/funfO{ dfq k'li6 ub}{g, clkt' ltgsf] pTs[i6 lzNk bIftfnfO{ klg k|:6\ofp“5 . jfB oGqsf]
lz/f]efudf bf¥xLjfn ;f“9]sf] 6fpsf] b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 . ;f“9s
] f] 6fpsf] ;'gaf6 tyf l;ªsf 6'Kkf, s]z,
cf“vf / bf¥xL gLndaf6 df]l/Psf] 5 . 6fpsf] d'lgsf] Kofgndf rf/ txdf ljefhg u/L ltgdf cb\e"t
vfnsf ljleGg cfs[ltx¿ cª\sg ul/Psf 5g\ .
Lyre Sound Box, from the tomb of Queen Puabi, Ur, c. 2685 BCE, wood with inlaid gold, lapis lazuli, and shell, 33 cm high, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
cSs8 -sl/a @#$)–@!*) O= k"=_

;'d]l/og sfndf p?sb]lv pQ/df cSsfl8og (Akkadians) elgg] dfgj ;d'bfo a;f]af; uy]{ .
pgLx¿sf] /fhwfgLnfO{ cSs8 (Akkad) elgGYof] . d];f]kf]6fldofsf] Oltxf;df ;f/uf]g k|yd (Sargon I)
sf] gfd cSs8 j+zsf ;+:yfkssf ¿kdf k|Voft 5 . pgn] kf“r bzs -@##@–@@&( O= k"=_ eGbf a9L
;do zf;g u/]sf lyP . pgn] d];f]kf]6fldofsf clwsf+z If]qsf cltl/St cfgf] /fHonfO{ l6lu|; /
o'k|]m6\; gbLb]lv k/;Dd lj:tf/ u/L ljZjs} klxnf] ;fd|fHosf] :yfkgf u/]sf lyP .
cSsfl8og /fhfsf] lz/
O/fssf] lgg]j (Nineveh) df kfOPsf] ‘cSsfl8og /fhfsf] lz/’ (The Head of an Akkadian King)
gfds/0f ul/Psf] wft'sf] d"lt{ ;DejtM ;f/uf]g k|yds} x'g'k5{ eGg] cgdfg ul/Psf] 5 . tfdfaf6
vf]j|mf] 9nfO (hallow cast) ul/Psf] of] d"lt{ sl/a @@%) O= k"= df ag]sf] lyof] . d'xf/df
b]lvg] ufDeLo{ efj / 3'“u'l/Psf nfdf bf¥xL d"lt{sf cfsif{s kIfsf ¿kdf /x]sf 5g\ . o; d"lt{df
tTsfnLg wft'snfsf] k|fljlws tyf snfTds ljlzi6tf b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 .
Head of an Akkadian Ruler (Sargon I), from Nineveh, Iraq, c. 2250 BCE 30 cm high, Museum of Antiquities, Baghdad
g/d–l;g\sf] :Nofa
;f/uf]g k|ydsf gflt g/d–l;g\ (Naram-Sin) sf] ljhoufyf s'“lbPsf] :Nofa (Victory stele of Naram-Sin) df
cSsfl8ogx¿sf] wfld{s, /fhgLlts / ;}Go zlSt bzf{OPsf] 5 . o;df l;ª ePsf] 6f]kL nufO{ ;fg;“u
plePsf /fhf g/d–l;g\ b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 . :Nofasf] zLif{ efudf b'O{ cf]6f tf/fx¿ s'“lbPsf 5g\ / /fhfsf
cufl8 zq' kIfsf b'O{ hgf k/f:t ;}lgsx¿ b]lvG5g\ . xfn of] l/lnkm d"lt{ n'e| Do'lhod, k]l/;sf]
;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 .
Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, c. 2300-2200 BCE, pink sandstone, 1.98 m high, Louvre, Paris
gj–;'d]l/og sfn -sl/a @!%)–!*)) O= k"=_

sl/a @!%) O= k"= df ;'d]/ If]qdf cSs8 j+zsf] ´G8} Ps ztfAbL nfdf] zf;gsf] ktg ePsf] lyof] .
To;kl5 o; If]qdf ;'d]/ ;+:s[ltsf] k'ghf{u/0f ePsf] lyof] . nfuf; (Lagash) To; a]nfsf] clt ;DkGg
gj–;'d]l/og gu/–/fHosf ¿kdf lrlgGYof] . oxf“sf /fhf u'8] (Gudea) sf] gfd clt k|tfkL /fhfsf ¿kdf
Oltxf;df cª\lst 5 . pgn] cg]sf}“ dlGb/x¿ lgdf{0f / k'g¿4f/ u/]sf lyP . Toxf“ pgn] k|fy{gf d'b|fdf
/x]sf cfk"m :jod\sf cg]sf}“ d"lt{x¿ klg agfpg nufPsf lyP . s8f vfnsf] sfnf] 9'ª\uf (diorite) df
ag]sf o:tf d"lt{x¿ xfn;Dd la; cf]6f kQf nflu;s]sf 5g\ . oL d"lt{df /fhf u'8]nfO{ alni7,
zflGtsfdL / bofn' zf;ssf ¿kdf cleJoSt ul/Psf] kfOG5 .
dlGb/sf] of]hgf lnPsf u'8]
‘dlGb/sf] of]hgf lnPsf u'8]’ (Gudea with Temple Plan) gfp“ lbOPsf] a;]sf] d"lt{ cfs[ltdf kfv'/f /
lhplar vfnL :yfg b]lv“b}g cyf{t\ Ps l9sf] b]lvG5 . d"lt{sf] 3f“6L 5f]6f] / df]6f] b]lvG5 . cfs[ltsf b'j}
xft k|fy{gfsf] d'b|fdf af“lwPsf 5g\ / cfs[ltsf] sfvdf dlGb/sf] of]hgf /flvPsf] 5 . d"lt{sf] hfdfel/
;'d]/ n]vfO So'g]kmd{ s'“lbPsf] 5 . xfn of] d"lt{ n'e| Do'lhod, k]l/;sf] ;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 .
Gudea with temple plan, from Lagash, Iraq, c. 2150 BCE, diorite, 73.7 cm high, Louvre, Paris
k|frLg a]lanf]g sfn -sl/a !*#)–!%%) O= k"=_

c7f/f}“ ztfAbL O:jL ;+jt\k"j{ xDd'/faL (Hammurabi) sf] g]t[Tjdf d];f]kf]6fldofdfly a]lanf]gn] sAhf
hdfPsf] lyof] . xDd'/faLn] d];f]kf]6fldofnfO{ k'gM PsLs/0f u/L cfk"mnfO{ ljZj–;d|f6\ 3f]if0ff u/]sf lyP .
pgn] /fHo k|0ffnLdf y'k|} ;'wf/ u/]sf lyP . xDd'/faLsf] ;donfO{ ‘a]lanf]gsf] :j0f{ o'u’ elgG5 .
xDd'/faLsf] Gofo ;+lxtf
‘xDd'/faLsf] Gofo ;+lxtf’ (The Code of Law Hammurabi) @=!# ld6/ cUnf] sfnf] 9'ªu\ f (basalt) df s'“lbPsf]
5 . of] :Nofa xDd'/faLsf] Gofo tyf ;fdflhs Joj:yf;“u ;DalGwt lyof] . o;sf] zLif{ efudf sl/a
&! ;]ld cUnf] l/lnkm d"lt{ klg s'“lbPsf] 5 . l/lnkmdf l;+xf;gdfly cf?9 cSsfl8og ;"o{ b]j :df;
(Shamash) cufl8 xDd'/faLsf] cfs[lt cª\lst 5 . b]jtfn] l;ªo'St 6f]kL / v'6\6f;Dd nfdf] hfdf wf/0f
u/]sf 5g\ . pgn] bfof“ xftdf 58L af]s]sf 5g\ . b]jtfsf lhp cufl8 kms]{sf] 5 eg] lz/ / v'6\6f
xDd'/faLlt/ kms]{sf 5g\ . cg'kftsf b[li6n] plePsf /fhfsf] cfs[lt / a;]sf b]jtfsf] prfO ´G8} a/fa/
b]lvG5 cyf{t\ b]jtfsf] cfs[lt /fhfsf] eGbf 7'nf] b]vfOPsf] 5 .
Stele inscribed with law code of Hammurabi, c. 1792-1750 BCE, basalt, 213 cm high, Louvre, Paris
cl;l/of -sl/a !!))–^!@ O= k"=_

blIf0fL d];f]kf]6fldofdf ;'d]/, cSs8 / nfuf; larsf] ztfAbLcf}“ nfdf] ;ª\3if{kl5 pQ/L d];f]kf]6fldofdf
csf]{ PsLs[t zlStsf ¿kdf cl;l/of (Assyria) gu/–/fHosf] pbo ePsf] lyof] . l6lu|; gbLsf] 5]p
jt{dfg l;l/ofdf cjl:yt o;sf] /fhwfgL ;x/sf] gfds/0f k|d'v cl;l/og b]jtf c;'/ (Ashur) sf]
gfp“af6 ul/Psf] lyof] . sl/a !#)) O= k"= df cfOk'Ubf c;'/ gu/ ;'b[9 gu/sf ¿kdf :yflkt eO;s]sf]
lyof] . gjf}“ ztfAbL O:jL ;+jt\k"j{sf] cGTo;Dd cfOk'Ubf pgLx¿n] d];f]kf]6fldofsf clwsf+z e"efudfly
cflwkTo hdfO;s]sf lyP . ;ftf}“ ztfAbL O:jL ;+jt\k"j{sf] k|f/Dedf oxf“sf zf;sx¿sf] ;Dks{ OlhK6sf
zf;sx¿;“u sfod eO;s]sf] lyof] . o;kl5 zL3| cfGtl/s sdhf]/L / afx\o zq'x¿sf] ;fdgf ug{
ljkmn x'gfn] ^)) O= k"= df cl;l/og ;fd|fHosf] ktg eof] .
cl;l/og zf;sx¿n] 7'N7'nf /fhk|;fbx¿ lgdf{0f ug{ nufPsf lyP . cfgf /fhk|f;fbx¿nfO{ ljleGg o'4
/ l;sf/;DaGwL b[Zox¿, cl;l/og o'4sf gfos zf;sx¿sf] :d[lt cflb;“u ;DalGwt d"lt{snfaf6
l;“ufy]{ .
l;+xsf] l;sf/ ub}{ u/]sf /fhf c;'/gfl;/kfn låtLo
lgd/8 (Nimrud) df /x]sf] c;'/gfl;/kfn låtLosf] /fhk|f;fbsf] leQfdf cª\lst l/lnkm ‘l;+xsf] l;sf/
ub}{ u/]sf /fhf c;'/gfl;/kfn låtLo’ (King Assurnasirpal II hunting lions) df 3f]8fuf8Lsf] kl5lNt/ pleP/
l;+xnfO{ wg'jf0f 6fSb} u/]sf c;'/gfl;/kfn cª\lst 5g\ . cfs[ltx¿df b]lvg] zf/Ll/s tgfj / ultsf
sf/0f of] l/lnkm lgs} ;zSt aGg k'u]sf] 5 . ;fy} Psdfly csf]{ vlK6Psf dfgj tyf 3f]8fsf
cfs[ltx¿sf sf/0f l/lnkmn] lq–cfoflds e|d k}bf u5{ . xfn of] d"lt{ la|l6; Do'lhod, nG8gsf]
;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 .

King Assurnasirpal II Hunting Lions, from Nimrud, Iraq, c. 883-859 BCE, 99 cm x 254 cm, British Museum, London
kv]6fjfn ;f“9
vf];f{afb (Khorshabad) df kfOPsf] ‘kv]6fjfn ;f“9]’ (The winged bull, Khorshabad) gfds/0f ul/Psf] d"lt{df
;f“9]sf kf“r cf]6f v'6\6f 5g\ . ;DejtM rf/ cf]6f v'6\6f dfq agfOPsf] eP b"/fGt/sf] lgodn] ubf{
cufl8 jf k5fl8af6 x]bf{ Ps jf b'O{ v'66\ f sd b]lvg] ePsf]n] o;sf d"lt{sf/n] Pp6f v'6\6f yk]/ ;f“9]sf
kf“r cf]6f v'6\6f agfOlbPsf 5g\ . kf“r cf]6f v'6\6fsf sf/0f cufl8af6 x]bf{ ;f“9]sf] cfs[lt l:y/ b]lvG5
eg] 5]paf6 x]bf{ lx“l8/x]sf] h:tf] k|tLt x'G5 . ;]tf] sdnf] 9'ªu\ fdf s'“lbPsf] of] xfO{ l/lnkm d"lt{ Hofb}
cnª\s[t 5 . ;f“9]sf] df+;k]zL tyf v'6\6fsf] agfj6 lgs} jf:tljs b]lvG5 . xfn of] d"lt{ n'e| Do'lhod,
k]l/;sf] ;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 .
The winged bull (Lamassu), from Khorsabad, Iraq, c. 720 BCE, limestone, 426 cm high, Louvre, Paris
gj–a]lanf]g ;fd|fHo -sl/a ^!@–%#( O= k"=_

cl;l/ofsf] ktgkZrft\ gj–a]lanf]lgogx¿ (Neo-Babylonians) n] o; If]qnfO{ jt{dfg 6sL{b]lv pQ/L
c/]laof / d];f]kf]6fldofb]lv e"dWo ;fu/;Dd lj:tf/ u/]sf lyP .
/fhf g]a'rfbg]Hh/ (Nebuchadnezzar) sf] gfd gj–a]lanf]lgog zf;sx¿dWo] ;jf{lws k|Voft /x]sf] 5 .
elgG5, ‘a]lanf]gsf] ´'Ng] au}“rf’ (the Hanging Gardens of Babylon) pg}n] agfpg nufPsf lyP .
a]lanf]gaf;Lx¿ vuf]n lj1fgdf lgs} ?lr /fVy] . pgLx¿n] tf/fx¿ tyf u|xx¿sf] l:yltaf/] cWoog
u/]sf lyP . pgLx¿ k[YjLsf] cfsf/ r]K6f] rSsf h:tf] 5 eGg] wf/0ff /fVy] . a]lanf]gsf ul0ft1x¿n]
klxnf] k6s Ps lbgnfO{ @$ 306f, Ps 306fnfO{ ^) ldg]6 / Ps ldg]6nfO{ ^) ;]s]G8df ljefhg
u/]sf lyP .
la;f}“ ztfAbLsf] k|f/Dedf ul/Psf] k'/ftflŒjs pTvggdf o; If]qdf !* lsld nfdf] kvf{nsf] eUgfjz]if
kfOPsf] lyof] . k/Gt' k'/ftŒjljb\x¿n] Oltxf;df jl0f{t k|Voft a]lanf]gsf] ´'Ng] au}“rfsf] cjz]if eg]
cBflk e]6\6fpg ;s]sf 5}gg\ . kl;{ofsf /fhf ;fO/; (Cyrus) n] %#( O= k"= df a]lanf]gdfly wfjf
af]n]kl5 cGttM of] ljzfn kl;{og ;fd|fHosf] Ps cª\u aGg k'Uof] .
O:6/ k|j]z åf/
g]a'rfbg]Hh/n] a]lanf]g af;Lx¿sf] b]jtf d8{s (Marduk) sf] :d[ltdf a]nsf] dlGb/ (Temple of Bel)
lgdf{0f ug{ nufPsf lyP . ;ft txsf] of] lhu'/ft a]lanf]g gu/Lsf] ;fgsf] ¿kdf plePsf] lyof] . O:6/
k|j]z åf/ (Ishtar Gate) af6 nfdf] af6f] x'“b} dlGb/ k'luGYof] . d];f]kf]6fldofsf :df/sdWo] ;jf{lws eJo
elgPsf] O:6/ k|j]z åf/sf] lgdf{0f sl/a %&% O= k"= df ePsf] lyof] .
of] snfTds åf/ a]lanf]gleq /x]sf cf7 cf]6f uf]nfsf/ k|j]z åf/dWo] Ps lyof] . k|]d / o'4sL b]jL O:6/
(Ishtar) sf] :d[ltdf agfOPsf] of] k|j]z åf/ !% ld6/ cUnf] lyof] . o;sf leQfx¿ gLnf rdsbf/
O“6fx¿af6 ;lhPsf lyP . tL O“6fdfly ;f“9] tyf cGo hgfj/sf cfs[ltx¿ s'“lbPsf lyP . Oltxf;sf/
x]/f]8f]6f];sf] j0f{gcg';f/ alni7 kvf{nlar /x]sf] of] åf/ Pp6f rf/–3f]8] aUuL ;lhn} df]8g\ ;lsg] u/L
7'nf] lyof] . O:6/ u]6nfO{ k'gMlgdf{0f u/L xfn aln{gsf] :6flnr Do'lhod (Staatliche Museen) sf] ;ª\sngdf
/flvPsf] 5 .

kl/R5]]b @ M k|frLg OlhK6
pQ/–k"j{ clk|msfdf cjl:yt OlhK6 k|frLg ljZjsf] clt zlStzfnL Pjd\ nfdf] sfnv08;Dd cl:tTjdf
/x]sf] dfgj ;Eotfsf ¿kdf lrlgG5 . sl/a &))) O= k"= df gj kfiff0fo'udf gfOn (Nile) gbLsf]
lsgf/df s[ifs ;d'bfox¿n] a;f]af; ug{ yfn]sf lyP . pgLx¿ 9'ªu\ fsf cf}hf/x¿ k|of]u uy]{ tyf xf8sf
;fdfgx¿ Pjd\ ef“8fs'“8fx¿ agfp“y] . sl/a #!)) O= k"= df PsLs/0f x'g' cufl8;Dd of] If]q blIf0fdf
cjl:yt pkNnf] OlhK6 (Upper Egypt) / pQ/df cjl:yt tNnf] OlhK6 (Lower Egypt) sf ¿kdf b'O{ cf]6f
/fHodf ljeflht lyof] . k|frLg OlhK6sf] ;Eotfsf] ljsf; x'g'df gfOn gbLsf] dxŒjk"0f{ of]ubfg /x]sf]
lyof] .
kf“rf}“ ztfAbL O:jL ;+jt\k"j{sf lu|s Oltxf;sf/ x]/f]8f]6;\ (Herodotus) sf] egfOcg';f/ OlhK6sf] ;Eotf
‘gfOn gbLsf] j/bfg’ lyof] . jiff{ gx'g] tyf rsf]{ 3fdn] 89]sf] of] clt pi0f e"ldsf nflu gfOn gbLsf]
Hofb} 7'nf] dxŒj lyof] . OlhlK;ogx¿sf nflu of] gbL s[lifsf nflu hldgsf] k6gL ug{ tyf b]z ljb]zsf
ljleGg efu;Dd k'Ug] k|d'v hndfu{;d]t lyof] . pgLx¿ gx/ agfO{ gbLb]lv 6f9fsf v]t;Dd kfgL
nfGy] .
k|frLg OlhlK;ogx¿n] lrqfTds n]vfO k4ltsf] ljsf; u/]sf lyP . o; n]vfO k4ltnfO{ lu|sx¿n]
‘xfO/f]lUnkm’ (Hieroglyph) cyf{t\ ‘kljq s'“bfO’ (Sacred Carving) sf] ;+1f lbPsf lyP .
sl/a #!)) O:jL ;+jt\k"j{b]lv OlhK6df ‘k]m/cf]’ (Pharaoh) cyf{t\ /fhfx¿sf] zf;g ;'? ePsf] lyof] .
k]m/cf]sf] cy{ ‘7'nf] ejg’ jf ‘b/af/’ lyof] . k]m/cf]nfO{ ‘hLljt b]jtf’ dflgGYof] h;sf] cf1f kfng ug'{
;d:t gful/sx¿sf] st{Jo lyof] . k'/fgf] /fHosfn (Old Kingdom) df cfOk'Ubf k]m/cf] lgs} zlStdfg\
eO;s]sf lyP .
tLg xhf/ jif{eGbf nfdf] OlhK6sf] Oltxf;n] cg]sf}“ wfld{s Pjd\ /fhgLlts pynk'ynsf] ;fdgf ug'{k/]sf]
lyof] .
k'/fgf] /fHosfn -@^$(–@!%) O= k"=_
lk/fld8
OlhlK;ogx¿ d[To'kl5 klg hLjg x'G5 eGg] s'/fdf ljZjf; uy]{ . z/L/sf] cef}lts k|lt¿k ‘sfM’ (ka:)
cyf{t\ cfTdfnfO{ pgLx¿ slxNo} ggfl;g] d"n tŒj dfGy] . dflg;sf] d[To'kl5 of] aflx/ hfG5 / s'g}
;dodf k]ml/ kmls{G5 / d[tb]xdf k|j]z u5{ eGg] s'/fdf pgLx¿ ljZjf; /fVy] . oxL bz{gaf6 k|]l/t eP/
k]m/cf]sf] d[To'kl5 pgsf] zjnfO{ ljz]if k|lj|mofåf/f gs'lxg] pkrf/ u/L zjafs;leq /flvGYof] . o:tf]
zjnfO{ ‘ddL’ (Mummy) elgGYof] . zjafs;nfO{ ;dflw3/ cyf{t\ lk/fld8 (Pyramid) leq /flvGYof] . d[t
k]m/cf]n] hLljt 5“bf pgn] k|of]u ug]{ u/]sf ;Dk"0f{ ;fdu|L klg lk/fld8leq /flvGYof] . lk/fld8sf leQf
Pjd\ 5tx¿df d[t k]m/cf]sf] hLjgsf pNn]vgLo 36gfx¿;“u ;DalGwt lrq tyf d"lt{x¿ agfOGy] .
Oltxf;sf/ x]/f]8f]6;\ sf] wf/0ffdf ‘/fhfsf] hLjgsfnsf] b/af/ t s]jn c:yfoL af;:yfg lyof] t/
lk/fld8 d[To'kl5 cgGt sfn;Dd a:g] :yfoL cf>d’ lyof] . t;y{ k]m/cf]x¿ cfÇgf] d[To'kl5sf] hLjg
;'/lIft kfg{sf nflu cfÇgf] hLjgsfndf g} cfÇgf] lrxfg cyf{t\ ;dflw3/ agfpg nufp“y] . OlhK6sf
lk/fld8x¿ ljZjs} cfZro{hgs j:t'sf ¿kdf dflgG5g\ .
‘lk/fld8’ zAbsf] pb\ej lu|s zAb ‘lk/fld;’ (pyramis) af6 ePsf] xf] . o;sf] cy{ ‘ux'“sf] s]s’ xf] .
lu|sx¿df k|rlnt dfly r'Rrf] kb}{ uPsf ux'“sf s]sx¿ h:t} OlhK6sf lk/fld8x¿ klg dfly r'Rrf] kb}{
uPsf sf/0f lu|sx¿n] ltgnfO{ ‘lk/fld;’ sf] ;+1f lbPsf lyP . k|frLg OlhK6sf] efiffdf lk/fld8nfO{
‘d]/’ (Mer) elgGYof] .
o:tf lk/fld8x¿df 3'dfp/f dfu{x¿ / 5b\d 9f]sfx¿ /flvGy] . lk/fld8sf leQfx¿ u|]gfO6 9'ª\ufaf6
agfOGy] . d'Vo ;dflw:yn;Dd k'Ug] 9f]sf ´6\6 x]bf{ gb]lvg] u/L aflx/L ;tx;“u} hf]8]/ agfOGYof] .
clwsf+z lk/fld8leq /flvPsf ax'd"No hjflx/ftx¿ !))) O= k"= ;Dddf n'6/] fx¿n] n'6g\ ;Dd
n'l6;s]sf lyP .
luhfsf lk/fld8x¿
OlhK6df ljleGg cfsf/ tyf ¿ksf lk/fld8x¿ aGg] j|md k'/fgf] /fHosfn (Old Kingdom) ;'? x'g'
cufl8b]lv dWo /fHosfn (Middle Kingdom) sf] cGTo;Dd rn]sf] kfOG5 . xfn;Dd o:tf sl/a c;L cf]6f
k|frLg lk/fld8x¿ 1ft x'g cfPsf 5g\ . oLdWo] OlhK6sf] pQ/tk{m luhf (Giza) df /x]sf tLg cf]6f
lk/fld8x¿ ;a}eGbf a[xt\, ;'/lIft Pjd\ cfZro{hgs dflgG5g\ . luhfsf oL lk/fld8x¿ @%%!–@$&@
O= k"= cjlwdf ag]sf lyP . oL tLg cf]6f lk/fld8dWo] k'/fgf] /fHosfnsf] k|f/Delt/ ag]sf] rf}yf] j+zsf
k]m/cf] v'k'm (Khufu) sf] lk/fld8 ;a}eGbf ljzfn /x]sf] 5 .
t]x| Ps8 hldg cf]u6]sf] of] lk/fld8 !$^ ld6/ cUnf] / o;sf] k|To]s 5]p @#) ld6/ nfdf] /x]sf] 5 .
of] lk/fld8 t]O; nfv cf]6f 9'ªu\ fsf Ansx¿af6 ag]sf] 5 / k|To]s Anssf] cf};t tf}n ;f9] b'O{ 6g
5 . lk/fld8sf] pQ/L kf6f]df k|j]zåf/ 5 . of] åf/ hldgsf] ;txaf6 sl/a !$=!* ld6/dfly vf]lnPsf]
5 . lk/fld8sf] 6'Kkf]df ‘On]S6«fd] ’ (electrum) elgg] ;'g / rf“bLsf] ld>0faf6 ag]sf] rdsbf/ wft'
df]l8Psf] ljz]if vfnsf] Ans /flvPsf] 5 . Oltxf;sf/ x]/f]8f]6;\ sf cg';f/ a[xt\ cfsf/sf] of] lk/fld8
b; xhf/hgf dflg;n] la; jif{ nufP/ agfPsf lyP . of] ljzfn lk/fld8 ‘dxfg\ ;dflw3/’ (The Great
Pyramid) sf] gfp“af6 ljZjk|l;4 5 .
bf];|f] 7'nf] lk/fld8 vk'msf k'q vfk|]m (Khafre) sf] /x]sf] 5 . of] lk/fld8 v'k'msf] lk/fld8eGbf sl/a
!) ld6/ 5f]6f] 5 . o; lk/fld8sf] /Iffy{ l:kmª\S; (Sphinx) sf] ljzfn d"lt{ /flvPsf] 5 . t];|f] 7'nf]
lk/fld8 vfk|]msf k'q d]gsp/] (Menkaure) sf] /x]sf] 5 . luhfsf oL tLg cf]6f a[xt\ lk/fld8x¿sf] ;d"x
ljZjsf ;ft cfZro{dWo] Ps dflgG5 . luhfsf lk/fld8x¿ kl5 klg k]m/cf]x¿sf nflu lk/fld8x¿ aGg]
j|md hf/L g} /x]sf] lyof] . clkt' tL luhfsf lk/fld8x¿ hlt a[xt\ / eJo b]lv“b}gg\ .
Pyramids at Giza, Egypt, 2551-2472 BCE, granite and limestone, the height of Khufu, 146 m, the base of each side 230 m long

d"lt{snf
OlhK6sf] snfdf kxf8 hqf ljzfn d"lt{b]lv lnP/ c9fO{ ;]lG6ld6/ ;Ddsf n3' cfsf/sf d"lt{x¿
kfOPsf 5g\ . oxf“ rf/}lt/ sfl6Psf 8f]nf d"lt{x¿ Pjd\ l/lnkm tyf xfO{–l/lnkm d"lt{x¿ k|z:t kfOPsf
5g\ . k|frLg OlhK6df ljljw sfnv08sf d"lt{snflar uhasf] ;dGjo b]lvG5 . o;sf] Ps dfq k|d'v
sf/0f oxf“sf] wfld{s Pjd\ ;fdflhs s6\6/tf / cv08tf g} lyof] . oxf“sf d"lt{sf/x¿n] ztfAbLcf}“
ztfAbL;Dd Pp6} lglb{i6 lgodcGtu{t /xL d"lt{ /rgf u/]sf lyP .
OlhK6sf d"lt{sf/x¿ clt ;fx|f] 9'ªu\ f sf6]/ d"lt{ agfp“y] . o:tf 9'ª\ufx¿ xhf/f}“ jif{;Dd glalu|g] /
3f]6/] 6Nsfpg;d]t ;lsg] lsl;dsf x'Gy] . d"lt{df /fhfsf] cfs[lt ;a}eGbf 7'nf] agfOGYof], / /fgLb]lv
lnP/ tNnf] bhf{sf dflg;x¿sf cfs[ltx¿ j|mdzM ;;fgf x'“b} hfGy] . oxf“sf w]/} d"lt{x¿df hgfj/ /
dflg;sf] ;+o'St :j¿k b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 . l/lnkm d"lt{x¿df cw{r]x/fdf klg cf“vfrflx“ k|foM cufl8af6
x]bf{ h:tf] b]lvG5, To:t} agfOGYof] . d"lt{df cfs[lt cufl8 kmls{Psf], km/flsnf] b'O{ s'dsf] lardf hl8Psf]
sjr, skfnsf] ´f“j|mf] ePsf], cufl8 x]l//x]sf] 6fpsf] / ´f]lNnPsf b'O{ cf]6f xft ePsf] x'GYof] . d"lt{sf]
z/L/ s8f / bl/nf] b]lvP klg d'xf/sf] efj zfGt b]lvG5 .
k'/fgf] /fHosfndf ag]sf pNn]vgLo d"lt{sf pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf ‘vfk]|msf] k|ltdf’ (Seated Statue of Khafre),
‘d]gsp/] / /fgL vd]/]/g]A6Lsf] d"lt{’ (Menkaure and Queen Khamerenebty), ‘a;]sf n]vgbf;’ (Seated
Scribe) cflbnfO{ lng ;lsG5 .
vfk]|msf] k|ltdf
luhfdf kfOPsf] k]m/cf] vfk]|msf] k|:t/ k|ltdfnfO{ OlhK6sf] k/Dk/fut z}nLdf ag]sf] d"lt{sf] b[i6fGtsf
¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . d"lt{df l;+xsf] cfs[lt s'“lbPsf] l;+xf;gdf a;]sf k]m/cf]sf] 6fpsf] k5fl8 afhsf
¿kdf b]jtf xf]/;sf] cfs[lt cª\lst 5 . l;+xf;gsf] bfof“ afof“ Ps–Ps cf]6f plePsf l;+x b[li6uf]r/
x'G5 . l;+xf;gdf lhpnfO{ ;Lwf tGsfP/ a;]sf k]m/cf]n] cfgf b'j} xftnfO{ 3'“8fdfly /fv]sf 5g\ . pgsf]
bfof“ xftsf] d'7L sl;Psf] 5 / afof“ xft 3'“8fdfly ;Lwf k}mnfP/ /flvPsf] 5 . k]m/cf]sf] 6fpsf]df dh]qf]
h:tf] sk8f af“lwPsf] 5 . To; sk8fdf /]vfåf/f cnª\s/0f ul/Psf] 5 .
Seated Statue of Khafre from Giza, 2520-2495 BCE, diorite, 1.68 m high, Egyptian Museum, Cairo
d]gsp/] / /fgL vd]/]/g]A6Lsf] d"lt{

luhfdf kfOPsf] vfk]|msf k'q d]gsp/] (Menkaure) / pgsL /fgL vd]/]/g]A6L (Khamerernebty) sf] d"lt{nfO{
k'/fgf] /fHo sfndf ag]sf plePsf d"lt{ cfs[ltsf] ;'Gb/ pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . cfotfsf/
Ansdfly plePsf oL cfs[ltdf b'j} xft ;Lwf /fvL d'7L s;]/ ;ts{ d'b|fdf plePsf d]gsp/] tyf bfof“
xft /fhfsf] sd/df / afof“ xftn] /fhfsf] kfv'/f ;dft]sL /fgL b[Zodfg x'G5 . /fhfn] 6fpsf]df dh]qf] /
3'“8f;Ddsf] s5f8 af“w]sf 5g\ . pgsf] s5f8sf] 6'Kkf] / bf¥xL nfDrf] cfsf/sf 5g\ . bfof“ v'6\6feGbf
afof“ v'6\6f cln cufl8 ;fl/Psf] 5 . /fhfsf] t'ngfdf /fgLsf] cfs[lt cln ;fgf] b]lvG5 .
Menkaure and Queen Khamerenebty, from Giza, 2490-2472 BCE, slate, 1.39 m high, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
l:kmª\S;sf] ljzfn d"lt{

OlhK6sf] d"lt{snfsf] Oltxf;df ‘l:kmª\S;’ (the Great Sphinx) sf] d"lt{n] 7'nf] dxŒj af]s]sf] 5 . of] ljzfn
d"lt{ r6\6fgnfO{ sf6]/ agfOPsf] lyof] . luhfdf cjl:yt k]m/cf] vfk|]msf] lk/fld8sf] /Iffy{ lgdf{0f ul/Psf]
o; d"lt{df dfgj lz/wf/L l;+xsf] cfs[lt b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 . elgG5, l:kmª\S;sf] d'xf/ vfk|]m :jod\sf]
lyof] . of] d"lt{ k"j{ kmsf{P/ agfOPsf] 5 . jiff}{+;Dd of] d"lt{ 3f“6L;Dd afn'jfd'lg k'l/P/ /x]sf] lyof] .
y'6df]l;; rt'y{ (Thutmosis IV) n] !$)) O= k"= df o;df k'l/Psf afn'jf x6fpg nufPsf lyP .
l:kmª\S;sf] xftsf] kGhfsf] lardf /x]sf] 9'ª\ufsf] :Nofadf o;sf] pTklQsf] syf n]lvPsf] 5 . of] :Nofa
klg k]m/cf] y'6df]l;; rt'y{n] /fVg nufPsf lyP .
l:kmª\S;sf] s'n prfO &# ld6/ /x]sf] 5 . o;sf] 6fpsf] @) ld6/ prfOsf] 5 eg] o;sf] sfg !
ld6/eGbf nfdf] 5 / o;sf] d'v @ ld6/ km/flsnf] 5 . o;sf] gfs dfqsf] nDafO plePsf] l;ª\uf] dflg;
hqf] 5 . o; cltl/St OlhK6df cg]sf}“ ;;fgf l:kmª\S;sf cfs[ltx¿ klg kfOPsf 5g\ .
The Great Sphinx, Giza, c. 2520-2494 BCE, sandstone, 20.12 m high, 73.15 m long
a;]sf n]vk9 ug]{ dflg;

k|frLg OlhK6df n]vk9 ug{ hfGg]x¿ ;a}eGbf k|a'4 JolStsf ¿kdf lrlgGy] . n]vk9 ;DaGwL sfd
ug{sf nflu ul0ft, wd{ cflbaf/] cWoog ug'{sf cltl/St k9fO / n]vfOdf klg kf]Vt x'g'kYof]{ . ;dfhdf
n]vk9 ;DaGwL sfd ug{ kfpg' clt g} k|lti7fsf] s'/f] dflgGYof] . ;Ssf/fdf kfOPsf] k'/fgf] /fHo sfnsf]
d"lt{ ‘a;]sf n]vk9 ug]{ dflg;’ (Seated Scribe) /fhsLo JolStTjx¿sf d"lt{ h:tf] a[xt\ cfsf/sf] 5}g,
clkt' lgs} k|fs[lts b]lvG5 . r'g9'ªu\ fdf ag]sf] o; d"lt{dfly /ª\ufª\sg ul/Psf] 5 h;n] ubf{ cfs[ltsf
cf“vfx¿ hLjGt ag]sf] 5 . r'g9'ªu\ faf6 ag]sf] of] d"lt{ %#=# ;]ld cUnf] /x]sf] 5 .
Seated Scribe, from Saqqara, c. 2551-2528 BCE, limestone, 53.3 cm high, Louvre, Paris

dWo /fHo sfn -sl/a !((!–!&)) O= k"=_
dWo /fHo sfn (Middle Kingdom) df y'k|} ;dflw–dlGb/x¿ ag]sf lyP . tyflk gof“ /fHo (New Kingdom)
sfnsf k]m/cf]x¿n] a[xt\ ejgx¿ lgdf{0f ug]{ j|mddf To; a]nfsf clwsf+z ;dflw–dlGb/x¿ eTsfPsf
lyP . o; sfndf lk/fld8sf cltl/St 7"N7"nf 9'ª\ufsf r6\6fg sf6]/ agfOPsf r6\6fgL ;dflw–dlGb/x¿
klg ag]sf lyP . P3f/f}“ / afx|f}“ /fhj+zsf clehft ju{ tyf pRr kb:y JolStx¿ Pjd\ gof“ /fHo
sfnsf k]m/cf]x¿df o:tf r6\6fgL ;dflw–dlGb/x¿ lgs} nf]slk|o lyof] . y'6df]h k|yd (Thutmose I) klxnf]
k]m/cf] lyP h;nfO{ r6\6fgL ;dflw–dlGb/df ;dflw:y ul/Psf] lyof] .
;];f]l:6«; t[tLosf] d'xf/–d"lt{
dWo /fHo sfndf ag]sf d"lt{x¿ k'/fgf] /fHo sfnsf d"lt{x¿eGbf a9L k|fs[lts b]lvG5g\ . o; ;dodf
ag]sf d"lt{x¿ a9L 8f]nf] / cg'xf/ s]xL efjk"0f{ b]lvG5g\ . klxnf] dWojtL{ sfnsf] /fhgLlts cl:y/tfsf]
kmn:j¿k dWo /fHo sfndf k]m/cf]sf] zlSt s]xL dfqfdf Ifo ePsf] lyof] . kmntM k]m/cf]sf] ‘b}jL zlSt’
dflysf] ljZjf;df s]xL ¥xf; cfPsf] lyof] . zL3| cfk"mnfO{ k'gM:yflkt ug{ k]m/cf] ;kmn eP tfklg o;
sfndf ag]sf s]xL d"lt{x¿df gof“ lsl;dsf] cleJolSt kfOG5 .
pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf ‘;];f]l:6«; t[tLosf] d'xf/–d"lt{’ (Portrait of Sesostris III) nfO{ lng ;lsG5 . o; kf]6«]6df
k]m/cf]sf] lgwf/ v'lDrPsf] lrlGtt d'xf/ b[li6uf]r/ x'G5, h'g /fhfnfO{ b}jL :j¿kdf k|:t't ug]{ k/Dk/fut
z}nLeGbf k[ys /x]sf] 5 .
Sesostris III, c. 1878-1841 BCE, quartzite, 16.5 cm high, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
gof“ /fHosfn -sl/a !%%)–!)&) O= k"=_

d"lt{snf
gof“ /fHosfn (New Kingdom) df klg d"lt{snfsf] k/Dk/fdf s'g} lju|x cfPsf] b]lv“b}g . sgf{s (Karanak)
df kfOPsf] /fd;]; låtLo (Ramesses II) sf] d"lt{df lgnf] d's'6 wf/0f u/L bfof“ xftdf /fhb08 lnP/
a;]sf k]m/cf]sf] cfs[lt b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 . d's'6df ;k{sf] cfs[lt klg b]vfOPsf] 5 . pgsf] afof“ v'6\6f /
bfof“ v'66\ f;“u} j|mdzM pgsL /fgL gf]k|m6] /L (Nofretari) / pgsf 5f]/fnfO{ lgs} n3' cfsf/df b]vfOPsf
5g\ . of] d"lt{ !=($ ld6/ cUnf] 5 .
gof“ /fHosfns} b]jtf cd'gsf] ;'gsf] k|ltdf -()) O= k"=_ klg pNn]vgLo 5 . o; k|ltdfdf cd'gn] bfof“
xftdf zlStsf] k|tLs ;fgf] t/af/ / afof“ xftdf hLjgsf] k|tLslrx\g lnPsf] b]vfOPsf] 5 . o;
k|ltdfsf] d's'6sf] dflyNnf] efu / cufl8 lg:s]sf v'6\6fsf cf}“nfx¿ ef“lr;s]sf 5g\ . l;ª\uf] 9nfO
ul/Psf] o; d"lt{sf] sfl/u/L lgs} pTs[i6 bhf{sf] /x]sf] 5 . o; d"lt{sf] prfO !& ;]= ld= /x]sf] 5 .

dlGb/ jf:t'snf
gj kfiff0fo'ub]lv g} OlhK6df dlGb/ agfpg] k|rng cfO;s]sf] lyof] . /fhj+z sfnsf] k|f/De;“u} o:tf
dlGb/x¿nfO{ rf]s, sf]7f / k|fy{gf sIf;lxtsf dlGb/sf ¿kdf ljsl;t ug{ yflnof] . logdf lardf b'O{
nx/df cUnf vDafx¿ /flvGy] h;sf] 5]pdf 5f]6f vDafx¿ x'Gy] . dlGb/sf] k|j]zåf/sf] bfof“ afof“
Ps Ps cf]6f 7'nf 58\s] k/]sf w/x/fx¿ x'Gy] .
cdf]g–d'6–vf]G;'sf] dlGb/
nS;/ (Luxor) l:yt cdf]g–d'6–vf]G;' (Amon-Mut-Khonsu) sf] a[xt\ dlGb/ gof“ /fHosfnsf] /fhwfgL y]A;
(Thebes) df dflgg] tLg b]jtfx¿sf] :d[ltdf ag]sf] lyof] . clxn] s]jn dlGb/sf] Ps v08 / :tDex¿sf]
nx/dfq af“sL /x]sf 5g\ .
xfT;]K:6sf] ;dflw–dlGb/ / d"lt{
b/ cn–af/L (Deir el-Bahri) df r6\6fg sf6]/ agfOPsf] xfT;]K:6sf] ;dflw dlGb/ kfOPsf] 5 .
v'8\lsnfx¿ ePsf] of] dlGb/ r"g9'ªu\ fsf] r6\6fg sf6]/ agfOPsf] 5 . of] ;dflw–dlGb/ /fgL xfT;]K:6
(Hatshepsut) / pgsf lktf y'6df]; k|yd (Thutmose I) sf] ;dflw dlGb/sf] ¿kdf lgdf{0f ul/Psf] lyof] .
r6\6fgnfO{ sf6]/ agfOPsf] dlGb/sf] afx\o efusf] ljzfn ;+/rgfdf cfotfsf/ cfwf/x¿, ax'sf]0fLo
:tDex¿ tyf v'8l\ snfx¿ /x]sf 5g\ .
lrqsnf
lhK;d Knf:6/
lrqsnfsf b[li6n] gof“ /fHosfnnfO{ lgs} ;d[4 dflgG5 . o; ;dosf lrqx¿ a9L k|s[ltk/s b]lvG5g\ .
o;} ;dob]lv lrqx¿ ;'/lIft /fVgsf nflu afg]{;sf] k|of]u ug]{ k|rngsf] ;'?cft ePsf] lyof] . o;
;dosf lrqx¿df kf/bzL{ j:q tyf 5fof k|sfzsf k|efj b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 .
y]A;df g]afdg (Nebamun) sf] lrxfgdf gof“ /fHosfndf ag]sf] lhK;d Knf:6/ (gypsum plaster) dfly
sf]l/Psf] lrqsf] Pp6f v08 kfOPsf] lyof] . o; lrqdf r/fsf] l;sf/ ub}{ u/]sf g]afdg (Nebamun hunting
birds) nfO{ b]vfOPsf] 5 . lrqdf pgL;“u pgsL kTgL, k'qL, hgfj/x¿ / e"–b[Zo b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 .
OlhK6sf] k/Dk/fut z}nLdf pgsf] 6fpsf] / v'6\6f k|f]kmfOndf tyf lhp / cf“vf cufl8af6 b]vfOPsf
5g\ . pgn] s5f8 nufPsf 5g\ . pgsf] cfs[ltsf] t'ngfdf pgsL kTgL / k'qLnfO{ j|mdzM ;fgf] b]vfOPsf
5g\ . lrqsf/n] r/fx¿nfO{ a9L :jtGqtfk"j{s lrq0f u/]sf 5g\, / df5fx¿df 5fof k|sfzsf] k|efj
:ki6 b]Vg ;lsG5 .
Nebamun Hunting Birds, Thebes, Egypt, c. 1390-1352 BCE, fragment of a painting on gypsum plaster, British Museum, London

k]kfO/;
OlhK6sf] lrqsnfsf] k|s/0fdf gof“ /fHosfnsf] ‘d[tssf] u|Gy’ (the Book of Dead) df k]kfO/; (Papyrus)
dfly sf]l/Psf] lrq pNn]vgLo 5 . x'g]km/ (Hunefer) gfdsf n]vgbf;sf] clGtd ;+:sf/;“u ;DalGwt o;
lrqdf lrt'jfsf] 5fnf cf]9]sf Ps hgf k'/f]lxt, 6]an / Zj]t j:q klx/]sf b'O{ hgf k'/f]lxt b[li6uf]r/
x'G5 . k'/f]lxtx¿n] aN5L, ;f“9]sf] v'6\6f / rSs' ;dfPsf 5g\ . ;Lwf pEofOPsf] x'g]km/sf] ddLsf] l7s
cufl8 b'O{ cf]6L zf]sdUg gf/Lx¿ b]lvG5g\ . ddLsf] k5fl8 :ofnsf] 6fpsf] ePsf b]jtf cg'la; (Anubis)
plePsf 5g\ . pgsf] k5fl8 xfO/f]lUnÇ; s'“lbPsf] :Nofa /x]sf] 5 . :Nofasf] dflyNnf] v08df al;/x]sf
b]jtf / ltgsf cufl8 plePsf x'g]km/sf] cfs[lt /x]sf 5g\ .
Opening of the Mouth Ceremony, from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer, c. 1295-1186 BCE, pigment on papyrus, British Museum, London
cdgf{ sfn -sl/a !#$(–!##^ O= k"=_

c7f/f}“ j+zsf k]m/cf] cs]gc6g (Akhenaten) sf] zf;g sfnnfO{ Oltxf;sf/x¿n] cdgf{ sfn (Amarna
Period) sf] ;+1f lbPsf 5g\ . pgL OlhK6sf] Oltxf;df k/Dk/fb]lv rNb} cfPsf] wfld{s kl/kf6LnfO{
kl/jt{g ug]{ k]m/cf]sf ¿kdf lrlgG5g\ . pgn] Ps O{Zj/jfbsf] dfGotfnfO{ :yflkt u/]sf lyP .
cs]gc6g / pgsf] kl/jf/sf k|ltdfx¿ k'/fgf k]m/cf]x¿sf] k|ltdfsf] t'ngfdf gf6sLo ¿kn] k[ys
z}nLdf ag]sf b]lvG5g\ . sgf{sdf kfOPsf] r"g9'ªu\ fdf ag]sf] pgsf] k|ltdfdf pgsf] zf/Ll/s agfj6nfO{
cln cgf}7f] jf lj¿k b]vfOPsf] 5 . of] k|ltdf #=(^ ld6/ cUnf] 5 .
g]km/l66Lsf] cfjIf d"lt{
cs]gc6gsL /fgL g]km/l66Lsf] cfjIf d"lt{ (Bust of Nefertiti) cdgf{ sfnsf] ;jf]Ts[i6 d"lt{sf ¿kdf k|l;4
5 . r"g9'ªu\ fdfly /ª\ufª\sg ul/Psf] of] d"lt{ lgs} k|fs[lts b]lvG5 . /fgLsf] tlGsPsf] 3f“6L / lz/df
/x]sf] lgnf] d's'6 o; d"lt{sf pNn]vgLo kIf x'g\ .
Bust of Nefertiti, c. 1349-1336 BCE, painted limestone, 48 cm high, Staatliche Museum, Berlin

t'tgsfdgsf] lrxfg
cs]gc6gsf] z]ifkl5 t'tgsfdg (Tutankhamon) gof“ k]m/cf] ag]sf lyP . pgn] sl/a !##^–!#@& O= k"=
zf;g u/]sf lyP . dfq c7f/ jif{sf] pd]/d} pgsf] lgwg ePsf] lyof] . ;g\ !(@@ df la|l6; k'/ftŒjljb\
xjf8{ sf6{/ (Howard Carter) n] t'tgsfdgsf] lrxfg kQf nufPsf lyP . lgs} ;'/lIft cj:yfdf e]6\6fOPsf]
t'tgsfdgsf] lrxfgdf rf/ cf]6f sIf ;lxtsf] ;dflw3/ /x]sf 5g\ . Toxf“ t'tgsfdgsf] ddLsf
cltl/St sl/a kf“r xhf/ cf]6f snfs[lt tyf cGo ;fdu|Lx¿ kfOPsf lyP .
t'tgsfdgsf] ddLnfO{ ;'gsf] dv'G8f]af6 5f]lkPsf] lyof] . dv'G8f]nfO{ lgnf l;;f, lgnd tyf cGo /ª\uLg
;fdu|Lx¿af6 ;hfOPsf] lyof] . ddLnfO{ Psleq csf]{ ub}{ tLg cf]6f zjafs;leq ;'/lIft /flvPsf]
lyof] . aflx/sf b'O{ cf]6f sf7sf afs;dfly ;'gsf] df]nDaf nufOPsf] lyof] . ;a}eGbf leqsf] afs; k"/f
;'gaf6 agfOPsf] lyof] . o;sf] tf}n !!) lsnf] lyof] . ddL / o;sf tLg cf]6f afs;x¿ 7'nf] cfotfsf/
9'ªu\ fsf] zjafs; (sarcophagus) leq /flvPsf] lyof] . t'tgsfdgsf] k'tnfnfO{ OlhK6sf] k/Dk/fut z}nLdf
cufl8 kmsf{O{ l7ª\u pEofOPsf] 5 . /fhfn] 6fpsf]df dh]qf] af“w]sf 5g\ . xftdf 3'd|]sf] n7\7L / d';n
af]s]sf 5g\ . pgsf] /Iffy{ 6fpsf]df b]jLx¿ jfh]6 (Wadjet) / g]Va]6 (Nekhbet) j|mdzM gfu / lu4sf
¿kdf cª\lst 5g\ . k]m/cf]n] sl:;Psf] j:q klx/]sf 5g\ . ltgnfO{ cg]s a'6\6fx¿af6 cnª\s/0f
ul/Psf 5g\ . la;f}“ ztfAbLsf] dxfg\ k'/ftflŒjs vf]h dflgPsf] t'tgsfdgsf] lrxfgdf kfOPsf
;fdu|Lx¿n] k]l/;, nG8g, /l;of tyf ;+o'St /fHo cd]l/sfsf] e|d0f ul/;s]sf 5g\ .
Coffin of Tutankhamon, c. 1327-1336 BCE, gold inlaid with enamel and stones, 39 cm high, Egyptian Museum, Cairo

PsfO b'O{ M Pl;ofnL snf cWoog (Asiasn Art Studies)
kl/R5]b ! M l;Gw'3f6L ;Eotfsf] snf

ef/tsf] k|frLg ;+:s[lt l;Gw gbLsf] lsgf/fdf ljsl;t ;Eotfaf6 k|f/De x'G5 . of] ;Eotf l;Gw'3f6L
;Eotf (Indus Valley Civilization) jf x8Kkf ;+:s[lt (Harappan Culture) sf gfp“n] k|l;4 5 . of] ;Eotf #@%)
O:jL ;+jt\ k"j{b]lv ;'? ePsf] dflgG5 eg] o; ;Eotfsf] cj;fg !%)) O:jL ;+jt\ k"j{df ePsf] lyof]
eGg] cg'dfg ul/Psf] 5 . o; ;Eotfsf] eUgfjz]if ;j{k|yd ;g\ !(@@ df kGhfasf] x8Kkf (Harappa) /
l;Gwsf] df]x]Ghf]bf8f] (Mohenjo-daro) df kQf nfu]sf] lyof] . x8Kkfsf] pTvgg sfo{ dfwf];¿k jT;n] u/]sf
lyP eg] df]x]Ghf]bf8f]sf] pTvgg ;/ hf]g df;{nn] u/]sf lyP .
x8Kkf / df]x]Ghf]bf8f] If]qsf] gu/of]hgfn] j}1flgs Pjd\ ljsl;t gu/ ;+/rgfsf] kl/ro lbG5 . o;
If]qdf kfOPsf eUgfjz]ifx¿df e'O“tnf dfq ar]sf 5g\ clkt' Toxf“ kfOPsf v'8l\ snfx¿, dflyaf6 tn
uPsf kfOkx¿ / afSnf leQfx¿n] Toxf“sf 3/x¿ ax'–tn] lyP eGg] ;DefjgfnfO{ Olª\ut u5{g\ . oxf“
b]lvg] 9nlgsf; tyf kfgL ljt/0f k|0ffnL x]bf{ Tolt k|frLg sfndf g} olt ljsl;t k|0ffnLsf] ljsf;
eO;s]sf] lyof] eGg] s'/f cfZro{hgs nfU5 .
df]x]Ghf]bf8f]df pTvggaf6 k|fKt ePsf ejgsf cjz]ifx¿ kSsL O“6fn] ag]sf 5g\ / lgjf;:yfgsf k|To]s
sf]7fx¿ pko'St cfsf/sf 5g\ . x/]s sf]7fdf kfgL Pjd\ jfo' ;~rf/sf] /fd|f] Joj:yf ul/Psf] b]lvG5 .
;x/sf] dWoefudf #( lkm6 nfdf], @# lkm6 rf}8f / * lkm6 ulx/f] :gfgs'08sf] eUgfjz]if kfOPsf] 5 .
o; cltl/St j/G8fx¿ / pko'St cfsf/sf sf]7fx¿o'St csf]{ Pp6f cfoftfsf/ ejgsf] cjz]if k|fKt
ePsf] 5 . of] !@ ld6/ nfdf] / & ld6/ rf}8f /x]sf] 5 .
;g\ !(#! df l;Gw'3f6L ;Eotfsf] csf]{ dxŒjk"0f{ ;x/ Rx'gbf/f] (Chun-daro) kQf nfu]sf] lyof] . ;DejtM
of] ;x/ ck]Iffs[t ;fgf] lyof] xf]nf lsgeg] oxf“ df]x]Ghf]bf8f] / x8Kkfdf h:tf 7"nf lsnfx¿ b]lv“b}gg\ .
tyflk oxf“ klg kSsL O“6fn] ag]sf ejgx¿sf] cjz]if / of]hgfa4 9nlgsf; Joj:yf b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 .
l;Gw'3f6L ;Eotfsf] pTvggaf6 k|fKt ePsf ;fdu||LnfO{ l;n tyf 6]/fsf]6f, k|:t/ Pjd\ wft'lgld{t d"lt{x¿
/ lrqsf/L ul/Psf ef“8fs'8fx¿df juL{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . o; If]qdf kfOPsf s]xL d"lt{df ;a}eGbf 7'nf]
d"lt{sf] prfO $@ ;]= ld= /x]sf] 5 . d"lt{x¿df bf¥xL;lxtsf / v's'nf] j:q klx/]sf j[4 k'?if
cfs[ltx¿sf] afx'No b]lvG5 . tLdWo] ‘k'?ifsf] wb’ tyf ‘bf¥xLjfn k'?if’ jf ‘k"hf/L’ sf] d"lt{ pNn]vgLo
5g\ .
bf¥xLjfn k'?ifsf] d"lt{
bf¥xLjfn k'?if (The Bearded Man) sf] d"lt{ r'g9'ª\ufaf6 ag]sf] 5 / o;sf] prfO !&=% ;]= ld= /x]sf] 5 .
nfDrf] / cw{d'lbt gog, r]K6f] gfs -xfn gfssf] 6'Kkf] ef“lr;s]sf]_, df]6f cf]“7 / bf¥xL o; d"lt{sf
ljz]iftf x'g\ . k'?ifsf] lgwf/df k6\6L / k6\6Lsf] dWo efudf Pp6f j[Q klg b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 . d"lt{sf]
j:qdf tLgkft] a'6\6fx¿ b]lvG5g\ . of] d"lt{ xfn kfls:tfgsf] /fli6«o ;ª\u|xfnosf] ;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 .
Bust of a bearded man (Priest), Mohenjo-Daro, c. 2000-1750 BCE, steatite, 17.5 cm high, National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi
gt{sLsf] d"lt{
o; If]qdf kfOPsf wft'sf d"lt{x¿dWo] gt{sLsf] d"lt{ pNn]vgLo 5 . o;nfO{ wft'snfsf] clt k|frLg
gd'gfsf] ¿kdf lnOG5 . xfn of] d"lt{ ef/tsf] /fli6«o ;ª\u|xfnosf] ;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 . d"lt{df cfÇgf]
bfof“ xft lgtDadf /fvL afof“ xftdf sf“wb]lv gf8L;Dd r'/f nufPsL / 3f“6Ldf dfnf klx/]sL lgj{;gf
:qL cfs[lt b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 . kftnf] z/L/sL o; gf/L cfs[ltn] afof“ v'6\6f cln cufl8 ;f/]/ lglZrGt
plePsf] d'b|fnfO{ b[li6ut u/]/ g} o;nfO{ ‘gt{sL’ (The Dancer) ;+1f lbOPsf] x'g'k5{ . of] d"lt{ !$ ;]= ld=
cUnf] 5 .
l;Gw'3f6L ;Eotfdf wft'df agfOPsf hgfj/sf cfs[ltx¿ klg k|z:t kfOPsf 5g\ . 9'ªu\ f / wft'sf
d"lt{x¿sf] bf“hf]df 6]/fsf]6fsf d"lt{x¿ a9L ;ª\Vofdf k|fKt ePsf 5g\ .
The Dancing Girl. Mohenjo-Daro, c. 2300-1750 BCE, copper, 14 cm high, National Museum, Delhi
l;n
l;Gw'3f6L ;Eotfdf kfOPsf l;nx¿ (Seals) df hgfj/x¿sf cfs[ltsf] afx'No /x]sf] 5 . lgs} oyfy{k/s
oL cfs[ltx¿df ;f“9], ;'“u'/, e}“;L, 3f]8f, s's'/, e]8f, xfQL, r/f cflbsf k|wfGo /x]sf] 5 . hª\unL
hgfj/df eg] af3, u}“8f cflb 5g\ . oL l;nx¿sf] agfj6 lgs} cfsif{s 5 . o; If]qdf b'O{ xhf/
cf]6feGbf a9L l;nx¿ k|fKt ePsf 5g\ . oL l;nx¿ tfdf, 9'ªu\ f, 6]/fsf]6f cflbaf6 ag]sf 5g\ . oL @÷#
;]= ld= cfsf/sf 5g\ .
o; If]qdf tfdfsf 7"nf 7"nf ef“8fs'“8fx¿ klg kfOPsf 5g\ . s'g} ef“8fdf h'xf/t, rf“bLsf r'/f, sfgkf;f,
xf/ tyf l;kLsf ;;fgf uxgfx¿ klg kfOPsf 5g\ . wft' / 9'ªu\ faf6 ag]sf rSs' tyf xftxltof/x¿df
k"mn tyf hgfj/sf d"lt{x¿ s'“lbPsf 5g\ . oxf“ cg]sf}“ k|sf/sf df6fsf ef“8fx¿ tyf v]nf}gfx¿ klg
k|fKt ePsf 5g\ .
Seals from Mohenjo-Daro, Harappan culture, c. 2300-1750 BCE
ef“8fs'8f
l;Gw'3f6L ;Eotfdf kfOPsf df6fsf ef“8fx¿sf] aflx/k6\l6 lrqsf/L klg ul/Psf] kfOG5 . ;DejtM o;
lsl;dsf ef“8fx¿ 3/]n' sfo{ tyf d[To' ;+:sf/sf] sfddf k|of]u ul/Gy] . oL ef“8fx¿df ljleGg k|sf/sf
cfs[ltx¿ lrlqt 5g\ . ;/n/]vfaf6 ag]sf oL cfs[ltx¿df sf]0f, j[Q, cw{j[Q cflb HofldtLo cfsf/x¿
b]lvG5g\ . o;afx]s k"mn, kz'kIfL / ljleGg lsl;dsf kftx¿nfO{ klg cnª\s/0fsf] ¿kdf k|of]u ul/Psf
5g\ . ef“8fdf lrlqt hgfj/sf cfs[ltx¿ ;/n / ultk"0f{ b]lvG5g\ . ef“8fsf lrqx¿df w]/}h;f] kx]“nf] /
/ftf] /ªsf] k[i7elddf sfnf] /]vfåf/f aflx/L cfs[ltnfO{ k"0f{tf lbOPsf] kfOG5 .
Large earthenware jar painted with designs including birds, a stylized tree and leaves, from Lothal, Harappan culture, c. 2300-1750 BCE
l;Gw'3f6L ;Eotfsf] cj;fg

sl/a !*)) O:jL ;+jt\k"j{b]lv l;Gw'3f6L ;Eotfsf] cj;fg x'g ;'? eO;s]sf] lyof] . sl/a !&)) O:jL
;+jt\k"j{;Dd cfOk'Ubf oxf“sf clwsf+z ;x/x¿ lgh{g eO;s]sf lyP . ;g\ !(%# df ;/ df]l6{d/ lJxn/
(Sir Mortimer Wheeler) gfd u/]sf la|l6; cg';Gwftfn] dWo Pl;ofaf6 cfPsf cfo{x¿sf] cfj|md0fsf
sf/0f o; ;Eotfsf] ktg ePsf] lyof] eGg] ts{ cl3;f/]sf lyP . clkt' jt{dfg lk“9Lsf ljåfg\x¿sf
cg';f/ ;'vf / OlhK6 tyf d];f]kf]6fldof;“u Jofkf/ ;'Sg yfn]sfn] o; ;Eotfsf] ktg ePsf] lyof] .
gjcfuGt's hfltsf] cfudg† jgljgfz / af9Lsf] k|sf]k tyf gbLsf] dfu{df cfPsf] kl/jt{g g} l;Gw'3f6L
;Eotfsf] ktgsf sf/s lyP eGg] cg'dfg ul/Psf] 5 .
xfn;fn} ul/Psf k'/ftflŒjs pTvggx¿n] x8Kkf If]qsf dflg;x¿ k"j{tk{m a;fO ;/]sf x'g;Sg] ;ª\s]t
u5{g\ . l;Gw'3f6L ;Eotfsf] cj;fg x'g'k5fl8 d"ntM hnjfo' kl/jt{gnfO{ g} dflgG5 .

kl/R5]b @ M k|frLg g]kfnL snf
sf7df8f}“ pkTosfdf dfgj a:tLsf] ;'?cft ;j{k|yd s;n] / slxn] u/]sf lyP, ;f]af/] s'g} P]ltxfl;s
tYo kfOPsf] 5}g . snfljb\ k|tfklbTo kfnsf cg';f/ g]kfnsf] k|dfl0fs Oltxf; O:jL ;+jt\ #)) b]lv
k|f/Ed x'G5, / xfn;Dd pknAw k|df0fx¿sf cfwf/df dgg ubf{ g]kfnL d"lt{snfsf] k|dfl0fs ;do
O:jL ;+jt\ klxnf] ztfAbL jf ;f]eGbf cln cufl8nfO{ dfGg ;lsG5 .
Oltxf;sf/x¿n] g]kfnsf] k|dfl0fs Oltxf;nfO{ lgDglnlvt kf“r v08df ljefhg u/]sf 5g\ –
– lnR5lj sfn -O= ;+= $#)–*&(÷*)_
– ;ª\j|md0f sfn -O= ;+= *&(÷*)–!@))_
– k"jf{4s { f] dNn sfn -O= ;+= !@))–!$*@_
– pQ/f4{sf] dNn sfn -O= ;+= !$*@–!&^(_
– zfx sfn -O= ;+= !&^( b]lv_
g]kfnsf lnR5ljx¿ pQ/ ef/tsf] j}zfnLsf lnR5ljx¿sf] xf“uf dflgG5g\ . elgG5, lnR5ljx¿ cfpg'
cufl8 g]kfndf ls/f“tx¿sf] zf;g lyof], / ls/f“tx¿nfO{ k/flht u/L lnR5ljx¿n] oxf“sf] zf;gsf]
afu8f]/ cfÇgf] xftdf lnPsf lyP .
lnR5lj sfnLg g]kfnsf] Oltxf;sf] cjlw O= ;+= #)) b]lv *&(÷*) ;Dd dflgG5 . O= ;+= $*^ sf]
rf“u'gf/fo0fdf /x]sf] :tDe–clen]v xfn;Dddf k|fKt klxnf] clen]v dflgG5 . O= ;+= *&(÷*) b]lv
!@)) ;Ddsf] cjlwnfO{ Oltxf;sf/x¿n] ;ª\j|md0f sfn eg]sf 5g\ . o; cjlwsf] /fhgLlts Oltxf;
cBflk c:ki6 g} 5, / To; tfsfsf zf;sx¿ sf] lyP eGg]af/] s'g} tYo k|sfzdf cfPsf] 5}g .
;ª\j|md0f sfndf /fhgLlts cl:y/tf /x] klg ;f+:s[lts ¿kn] of] ;do ;d[4zfnL g} lyof] eGg] s'/fsf]
k'li6 tTsfnLg u|Gy tyf snfs[ltx¿n] u/]sf 5g\ . o; sfndf k|:t/ d"lt{snfsf] t'ngfdf wft'sf cg]sf}“
pTs[i6 d"lt{x¿ ag]sf] b]lvG5 .
O= ;+= !@)) b]lv !$*@ sf] cjlwnfO{ k"jf{4{sf] dNn sfn / O= ;+= !$*@ b]lv !&^( sf] cjlwnfO{
pQ/f4{sf] dNn sfn elgG5 . pQ/f4{sf] dNn sfndf sf7df8f}“ pkTosf tLg a]Unfa]Un} /fHodf ljefhg
ePsf] lyof] . oL /fHosf zf;sx¿ dNnx¿ g} lyP tyflk pgLx¿lar k|foM snx eO/xGYof] . kmntM
O= ;+= !&^( df uf]/vfsf zfxj+zLo /fhf k[YjLgf/fo0f zfxnfO{ sf7df8f}“ pkTosfdfly ljho xfl;n ug{
dfu{k|z:t x'g k'u]sf] lyof] . /fhgLlts ¿kn] cl:y/ /x] klg pQ/f4{sf] dNn sfndf Jofkfl/s Pjd\
;f+:s[lts ultljlwdf s'g} lzlyntf cfPsf] b]lv“b}g . jf:tjdf cg'kd sfi7snfaf6 zf]efodfg /x]sf
clwsf+z dNn sfnLg pTs[i6 dlGb/, /fhk|f;fb Pjd\ ejgx¿ pQ/f4{sf] dNn sfndf ag]sf lyP .
;qf}“ ztfAbLdf cfP/ g]kfnL snfdf l5d]sL ef/tdf d'un z}nLsf] gfdaf6 ljsl;t ePsf] z}nLsf] k|j]z
ePsf] b]lvG5 . tTsfnLg g]kfnL snfsf/x¿df d'un snfsf] t8\sf/f] k|efj b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 .
Zffx sfnnfO{ /fhgLlts l:y/tfsf] sfnsf] ¿kdf lrq0f ul/G5 tyflk g]kfnL zf:qLo snfsf] ljsf;df
o; sfnsf] vf;} pNn]vgLo of]ubfg /x]sf] b]lv“b}g . ut b'O{ ;o jif{eGbf a9L ;do cjlwdf ag]sf
snfs[ltx¿df lnR5lj sfnLg tyf dNn sfnLg snfdf h:tf] l;h{gzLntf / k|fljlws pTs[i6tf
e]l6“b}g .

jf:t'snf
s'g} 3/ jf dlGb/sf] lgdf{0fdf df6f], O“6f, sf7, 9'ªu\ f cflb ;DaGwL sfdsf cltl/St lrqsnf, d"lt{snf
tyf /ª/f]ug Pjd\ cGo ljleGg ;hfj6x¿sf] pkof]u x'G5 . o;/L nlntsnfsf ljljw ljwf ;dflji6
x'g] x'gfn] jf:t'snfnfO{ ‘k"0f{ snf’ sf ¿kdf lng] ul/G5 . pkof]lutf / ;'Gb/tfsf] cf}lrTok"0f{ ;dGjo
ePg eg] jf:t'snfsf] dxŒj /x“b}g . k/fDk/fut g]kfnL jf:t'snf pkof]lutf / ;'Gb/tf, b'j} b[li6n]
ljnIf0f /x]sf] 5 .
k/Dk/fut g]kfnL 3/ tyf dlGb/x¿sf] lgdf{0fdf O“6fsf] uf/f] k|of]u ul/Psf] x'GYof] . O“6fx¿ ljz]if
k|ljlwaf6 kf]n]/ agfOGy] / tL lgs} dha't x'Gy] . ;DkGg tyf /fhsLo JolStx¿sf 3/x¿ ljz]if
snfTds ;'Gb/tfn] o'St x'Gy] . xfd|f] k|frLg jf:t' ljwfgcg';f/ hg;fwf/0fsf 3/sf] cg'kftdf /fhfsf]
b/af/ / b]jL b]jtfsf dlGb/ cUnf x'Gy] h;af6 6f9}af6 dlGb/ / /fhk|f;fb lrGg ;lsGYof] .
k/Dk/fut 3/ tyf dlGb/x¿sf 5fgf $% l8u|L sf]0fdf 58\s] kf/]/ agfOG5 . tx tx 5fgfo'St xfd|f]
dlGb/ jf:t'snf ljZj ;fd' ‘Kofuf]8f z}nL’ sf] gfdaf6 k|Voft 5 . dlGb/sf tnfx¿ j|mdzM tn 7'nf]
eO{ snfTds cg'kftdf tn}lkR5] dfl:t/ ;;fgf] kfb}{ agfOG5 . b]jL b]jtfsf zlSt / ltgsf] :yfgLo
dxŒjcg';f/ dlGb/sf tnf lgwf{/0f ul/G5 . ;f]xLcg'¿k dlGb/sf] k]6L, tx jf kfbkL7 agfOG5 .
dlGb/x¿sf] 5fgf l´ª\u6L jf wft'af6 agfOPsf x'G5g\ . wft'sf] 5fgfdfly ;'gsf] df]nDaf ug]{ klg rng
5 . 5fgf k|foM rf/} lbzfdf kftfkftf k/L kv]6f´}“ km}lnPsf x'G5g\ . 5fgfd'lg xn“kf}x¿ / 306fx¿
´'lG8Psf x'G5g\ . 5fgfsf] af]ńfO{ c8\ofpg rf/}lt/af6 58\s] 6'“8fnx¿ 78\ofOPsf x'G5g\ . 6'“8fn k|foM
sf7s} x'G5 . oL 6'“8fndf dlGb/l:yt d"n b]jtfsf] ;Dk|bfocg';f/ pgsf u0fx¿ jf :jod\ b]jtfs} ljleGg
cjtf/sf d"lt{x¿ 6'“8fnsf] nDafO–rf}8fOdf ldNg] cfs[ltdf s'“lbPsf x'G5g\ . sltko 6'“8fnx¿df
/lt/fufTds d"lt{x¿ klg s'“lbPsf x'G5g\ . rf/ sf]0fdf 78\ofOg] d'Vo 6'“8fnx¿df l;+x, zfb{"n, ch/k'?if,
dxfgfu cflb cb\e"t k|f0fLx¿sf r]x/f s'“lbPsf x'G5g\ .
;a}eGbf tNnf] tnfdf d'Vo b]jtfsf] d"lt{ :yfkgf ePsf] x'G5 . k|foM dlGb/sf] rf/}lt/ rf/ cf]6f åf/x¿
x'G5g\ . oL åf/dfly tf]/0f x'G5 . tf]/0fsf] lardf d'Vo b]jtfsf] Wofg d'b|fsf] d"lt{ x'G5 / jl/kl/ gfu,
5]k' / ds/x¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ . åf/sf] 5]p5]psf] leQfdfly sf7sf ljz]if d"lt{x¿ s'“lbPsf x'G5g\ .
;a}eGbf dflyNnf] 5fgfdfly uh'/ x'G5 . st} st} uh'/dfly lqsf]0fsf] ¿kdf a'6\6]bf/ ktfsf klg /fVg]
rng 5 h;dfly 5q /x]sf] x'G5 .
g]kfnL jf:t'snfsf] ;jf{lws df}lns Pjd\ ct'ngLo kIf eg]sf] logdf k|o'St cToGt} pTs[i6 sfi7snf
xf] . 3/sf] d'Vo df]x8fsf] e'O“tnfsf] dWo efudf d"n k|j]zåf/ ;lhPsf] x'G5 . k|j]zåf/sf rf}sf];x¿
cg]s z'e;"rs j:t'x¿sf] k|ltlglwTj ug]{ ;'Gb/ snfTds a'6\6fx¿n] e/df/ ;lhPsf x'G5g\ . d'Vo
åf/sf] bfof“afof“ leQfdf ljz]if u/]/ g]qo'un / snzåo klg n]lvPsf x'G5g\ .
xfd|f] jf:t'snfdf ‘ltsL‰ofM’ cyf{t\ cf“vL‰ofnsf] ljz]if :yfg /x]sf] 5 . klxnf] / bf];|f] tnf;Ddsf
‰ofnx¿ k|foM cf“vL‰ofn g} x'G5g\ . cf“vL‰ofnx¿df klg cg]s sflnu9Laf6 ;lhPsf txtxbf/ rf}sf];
/ pkrf}sf];x¿ x'G5g\ . o:tf ‰ofnx¿df dª\un;"rs ci6dª\un lrx\gx¿sf cltl/St cg]s ;Dk|bfosf
Oi6b]jLb]jtfx¿ / hLjhGt'x¿sf] d"lt{ klg hl8Psf x'G5g\ . cf“vL‰ofnx¿sf clt/St d'Vo sf]7fsf]
df]x8fdf tLg, kf“r jf ;ft cf]6f ‰ofnx¿nfO{ Ps} l9sf] u/L agfOPsf v'nf ‰ofnx¿ klg /fVg] rng
5 . ‘;“‰ofM’ elgg] oL ‰ofnx¿ 3/sf] d'Vo ‰ofnsf] ¿kdf ljlzi6 9ª\un] ;lhPsf x'G5g\ h;df tf]/0f

cflb ;d]t nfu]sf x'G5g\ . o:tf lsl;dsf ‰ofnx¿ 3/sf] uf/f]af6 aflx/ lg:s]sf x'G5g\ . o; k|sf/sf
‰ofndfly l´ª\u6Lsf] jf wft'sf] 5fgf la5\ofOPsf] x'G5 .
kz'kltgfysf] dlGb/
kf}/fl0fs syf tyf cfVofgdf kz'kltgfysf] pTklQaf/] h] h:tf] j0f{g ul/P klg k'/ftflŒjs Pjd\
P]ltxfl;s tYox¿nfO{ b[li6ut ubf{ kz'kltgfy dlGb/sf] :yfkgf O:jL ;+jt\sf] t];|f]÷rf}yf] ztfAbLlt/
lnR5ljx¿;“u} afUdtL pkTosfleq k;]sf s'iff0fx¿n] u/]sf] w]/} ;Defjgf 5 . lsgeg] s'iff0fx¿ z}j
wd{sf cg'ofoL lyP . s'iff0f /fhf j;'b]jsf d'b|fx¿df ;f“9]sf] cufl8 ple/x]sf lzj / csf]{ s'iff0f /fhf
ledfv8\kml;;sf] a|fx\dL clen]v ;lxtsf] lzjlnª\u ;lxtsf] d'b|fn] klg o; s'/fnfO{ k|dfl0ft u5{ .
lnR5lj /fhf dfgb]jsf afh] zª\s/b]jn] kz'kltgfysf] dlGb/df lqz"n r9fPsf] pNn]vn] To; dlGb/sf]
Oltxf; ´G8} bf];|f] ztfAbLlt/sf] b]lvG5 . ;f] dlGb/nfO{ wld/fn] ljgfz u/]sf]n] kl5 k'g?åf/ ul/Psf]
lyof] eGg] pNn]v kfOG5 . lnR5lj sfn / c´ ;f]eGbf cufl8 g} kz'kltgfysf] dlGb/ cl:tTjdf
cfO;s]sf] elgP tfklg o; dlGb/sf] jt{dfg 9f“rf dNn sfnsf] xf] eGg] k'li6 x'g cfPsf] 5 .
æs'iff0fx¿ jf:t'snfdf klg lgk'0f lyP . zs–s'iff0fx¿n] g} ;a}eGbf klxn] sf7df8f}“ pkTosfleq dlGb/
jf:t'snf leq\ofPsf lyP . t;y{ kz'kltgfysf] d"lt{ / dlGb/sf] :yfkgf log} zs–s'iff0fx¿n] O:jL
;+jt\sf] t];|f]÷rf}yf] ztfAbLlt/ u/]sf] cg'dfg nufpg ;lsG5 . uf]kfn /fhj+zfjnL / cGo
j+zfjnLcg';f/ lnR5lj /fhf >L;'k'ikb]jn] kz'kltsf] b]jn agfpg nufPsf lyP . O:jL ;+jt\sf] bf];|f]
ztfAbLsf] /fhf ho jdf{eGbf ;ft k':tf cl3sf /fhf >L;'k'ikb]jsf] ;dodf g} afUdtL pktosfleq >L
kz'kltgfysf] k"hfcfhf ug]{ k/Dk/f /x]sf] cg'dfg 5 . o;} j+zsf /fhf efis/ jdf{n] cfÇgf] /fHo blIf0f
;d'b|;Dd a9fO{ w]/} lx/f, df]tL, ;'g cflb >L kz'kltgfynfO{ r9fPsf lyP .Æ -8f= ;fkmfNo cdfTo,
uf]/vfkq b}lgs, @)&) ;fn, kmfu'g !%_
O:jL ;+jt\ $*^ sf] rf“ug' f/fo0fsf] dfgb]jsf] clen]vdf pgsf afh] /fhf j[ifb]jn] kz'kltgfysf]
pQ/tk{m 7'nf] lqz"n :yfkgf u/]sf] s'/f plNnlvt 5 . g]kfn ;+jt\ @!( -O= ;+= !)((_ df /fhf
lzjb]jn] kz'kltgfy dlGb/ k'gMlgdf{0f u/L tfdfsf] 5fgf xfn]sf lyP . pQ/f4{sf] dNn sfndf
s0ff{6ssL /fgL b]jnb]jLn] g]kfn ;+jt\ $^( -O= ;+= !#$(_ / ;f]xL jif{ /fhf ho/fhb]jn] kz'kltdf sf]if
r9fPsf lyP eGg] pNn]v kfOG5 .
O= ;+= !#$( df aª\ufnsf ;'Ntfg ;d;'l2gn] kz'kltgfy dlGb/nfO{ tx;gx; u/L kz'kltsf] d"lt{nfO{
tLg 6'j|mf kf/]kl5 To;sf] s]xL jif{kl5 ag]kfsf hol;+x /fdj4{gn] kz'kltsf] dlGb/ k'gMlgdf{0f u/]/
d"lt{sf] k'gM:yfkgf u/]sf lyP . kz'klt dlGb/sf] k'gMlgdf{0fsf] sfo{ O= ;+= !$!@ df /fhf Hof]lt dNnsf]
;dodf klg ePsf] a'lemG5 . lsgeg] pgn] g]= ;+= %## -O= ;+= !#%%_ df kz'kltgfysf] dlGb/df ;'j0f{
uh'/ r9fO{ k|lti7f u/]sf lyP .
xfn ljBdfg kz'kltgfysf] d"lt{ log} ag]kfsf dxfy hol;+x/fd j4{gsf] s[lt xf] . ;dosf] j|mddf pQ/
lnR5lj sfndf ag]sf] kz'kltsf] dlGb/sf] jf:t'snf s] s:tf] lyof] ;f]af/] xfdL ce}m cgle1 5f}“ .
kz'kltgfysf] dlGb/sf] xfnsf] jf:t' 9f“rf /fhf lzjl;+x dNn -O= ;+= !%&*–!^@)_ ls /fgL uª\uf/fgLn]
u/]sf] hL0ff]{åf/ / k'gMlgdf{0f kl5 ePsf] b]lvG5 . e"kt]Gb| dNnn] dlGb/sf] k'gMlg{df{0f u/]kl5 lj= ;+=
!*#* df /fhf /fh]Gb|ljj|md zfxnufot w]/} zfx j+zLo /fhfx¿n] klg o; dlGb/sf] hL0ff]{åf/f tyf dd{t
;Def/ u/]sf lyP . dlGb/sf] ;'Gb/tfdf j[l4 ug]{ sfddf /f0ff k|wfgdGqLx¿sf] klg TolQs} of]ubfg /x]sf]
5.
kz'kltgfysf] dlGb/ rf}sf]/ cfsf/df Kofuf]8f z}nLdf lgld{t 5 . o; dlGb/sf] prfO tnb]lv dfly;Dd
%=$* ld6/ 5 . dlGb/sf] 5fgf / rf/} lbzfsf tLg tLg 9f]sfx¿ ;'g / rf“bLn] df]l8Psf 5g\ . dlGb/sf]
leqkl6\6 ;f“3'/f] k|blIf0ffky 5 . dlGb/leq rt'd'{vL lzjlnª\u 5 . dlGb/sf] b'j} tnfsf rf/} lbzfdf ;Dd
kf/]/ ujfIf -cf“vL‰ofn_ agfOPsf 5g\ . 5fgfd'lg sf7sf] 6'“8fnn] 5fgf c8\ofOPsf] 5 . tL snfTds
6'“8fnx¿df ljljw cfs[ltx¿ cª\lst 5g\ .
dlGb/leq lzjlnª\usf] cfsf/df s'“lbPsf] rt'd'{vL kz'klt dxfb]jsf] k|:t/ d"lt{ /x]sf] 5 . sl/a !=!$
ld6/ cUnf] of] d"lt{ s8f vfnsf] sfnf] 9'ªu\ fdf sf]l/Psf] 5 . km/s efj / Wofgdf rf/ lbzflt/ kms]{sf
d'xf/x¿ rf/ cf]6f j]bsf k|tLs dflgG5g\ . tL ;Bf]hft, jfdb]j, tTk'?if tyf c3f]/ gfdaf6 lrlgG5g\ .
:j0f{dl08t 5fgf / rf“bLn] ;lhPsf 9f]sfx¿ ePsf] kz'kltgfy dlGb/ kl/;/leq jf;'sL, u0f]z, dft[sf,
e}/j, zLtnf, ;"o{, xg'dfg, ;/:jtL, gju[x cflb ljljw b]jLb]jtfsf d"lt{x¿ /x]sf 5g\ . lj= ;+= @)!^
;fn -O= ;+= !(%(_ df kz'kltgfy dlGb/ Pjd\ To;sf] kl/;/sf] hL0ff]{4f/ ;';DkGg ePsf] lyof] .
rf“u'gf/fo0f dlGb/
rf“u'gf/fo0f dlGb/ /fhf dfgb]jsf] kfnfdf O:jL ;+jt\ $^$ df ag]sf] / oxf“sf] klxnf] u'7L klg /fhf
dfgb]jn] g} /fv]sf] tYo kfOG5 . sflGtk'/sf dNn /fhf hoe"kfn]Gb| dNnn] g]= ;+= *!$ -O= ;+= ()@_ df
o; dlGb/sf] hL0ff]{åf/ u/]sf lyP eGg] pNn]v kfOG5 . ;Qn} ;Qnx¿n] 3]l/P/ /x]sf] of] k|l;4 dlGb/n]
g]kfnsf] ;f+:s[lts, k'/ftflTjs Pjd\ P]ltxfl;s dxŒj af]s]sf] 5 .
rf“u'gf/fo0f dlGb/sf]] rf/}lt/ 7"nf 9f]sfx¿ 5g\ . log} 9f]sf x'“b} rf/} lbzf hfg] 9'ªu\ fsf l;“9Lx¿ 5g\ .
klZrdsf] 9f]sfnfO{ gf/fo0fsf] d"n9f]sf dflgG5 . o; 9f]sfaf6 Ps ;o cf7 v'8l\ snfsf] 9'ªu\ fsf] l;“9L
x'“b} cf]n]{kl5 zª\vbx k'luG5 . of] dlGb/ 7'nf] rf/kf6] 9'ªu\ fdfly lgdf{0f ul/Psf] 5 . dlGb/sf k]6Lx¿
km/flsnf 5g\ .
dlGb/sf] d"n åf/ klZrdtkm{ /x]sf] 5 / dlGb/sf] rf/} lbzfdf tLg–tLgcf]6f åf/x¿ 5g\ . d"nåf/cufl8
Pshf]8L l;+xsf d"lt{ /flvPsf 5g\ . klZrd åf/df ;'gsf] df]nDaf nufOPsf] 9f]sf 5 . o;dfly
rt'jf{x' gf/fo0fsf] d"lt{ ;lxtsf] eJo tf]/0f /flvPsf] 5 . o;sf] bfof“ afof“ j}i0fj b]jtfsf cfsif{s
d"lt{x¿ 5g\ eg] dlGb/sf] ;fd'Gg] tLg cf]6f kfnfx¿ l;j|mLdf ´'G8\ofP/ /flvPsf 5g\ .
dlGb/sf] pQ/tk{m e]8fsf] cfsf/k|sf/;“u ldNg] Ps hf]8L d[usf d"lt{ 5g\ . dlGb/sf] åf/dfly /fwf–s[i0f
/ ?lSd0fLsf] d"lt{;lxtsf] ;'j0f{ df]nDafo'St tf]/0f 5 . k"jf{led'v Pshf]8L zfb"{nsf] d"lt{ 5 . tf]/0fsf]
zLif{ efudf nIdLgf/fo0f / u?8sf ;'Gb/ d"lt{x¿ 5g\ . blIf0ftk{m Pp6} 9'ªu\ faf6 lgld{t Ps hf]8L
xfQLn] sdnsf] k"mn lnO/x]sf] d"lt{ 5 . 9f]sfdfly tf]/0fdf nIdL, ;/:jtLsf d"lt{x¿sf lardf u?8df
lj/fhdfg /x]sf gf/fo0fsf] d"lt{ b]lvG5 . dlGb/sf] rf/} lbzfdf åf/fkfnsf 9'ªu\ fsf d"lt{x¿ bfof“–afof“
/flvPsf 5g\ .
dlGb/sf] klxnf] 5fgfd'lg sf7åf/f lgld{t ljz]if k|sf/sf rf}aL; cf]6f 6'“8fnx¿ 5g\ . tL k|To]s
6'“8fnx¿df lji0f'sf cg]s cjtf/x¿sf lrq clª\st 5g\ . dlGb/sf] rf/} s'gfdf e]8fsf] h:tf] cfsf/sf
l;ª, tLg cf“vf / kv]6f ePsf 3f]8fsf] h:tf] d'vfs[ltsf cgf}7f cfs[ltx¿ 5g\ . /fi6«df clgi6 x'g]
;ª\s]t cfPdf oL cfs[ltx¿ s/fp“5g\ eGg] hgljZjf; /lxcfPsf] 5 . 6'“8fnsf] ;“u} tn oIf, uGwj{,
lsGg/, kz'kIfLsf] h:tf] 6fpsf] ePsf b]jLb]jtfsf x:t d'b|fsf sf7sf k|ltdfx¿ 5g\ . 5fgfsf] rf/}lt/sf]
lsgf/df ;;fgf 306fx¿ ´'G8\ofOPsf 5g\ . d"n 9f]sfsf] ;fd'Gg] ;Too'usf] rfdn elgg] sf7sf] 7]psf]
/x]sf] 5 . dlGb/sf] klxnf] tnf l´ª\u6Lsf] 5fgf 5 . 5fgfdfly rf/}lt/ leQfdf gf/fo0fsf] d"lt{ /
oGqx¿ /flvPsf 5g\ . bf];|f] tnfsf] 5fgf tfdfsf] df]nDaf nufO{ agfOPsf] 5 . dlGb/sf] dfly lar
efudf rf/ cf]6f ;'gsf uh'/ /flvPsf 5g\ . ltg} uh'/b]lv dlGb/sf] d"n 9f]sfaf6 ;lhn} b]lvg] u/L
´'G8\ofOPsf] Pp6f nfdf] tf]/0f klg 5 .
dlGb/sf] ue{u[xsf] df´df tfdfsf] cf;gdfly u?8gf/fo0fsf] eJo ;'j0f{dlGb/ 5 . u?8dfly kn]“6L s;L
lj/fhdfg ePsf gf/fo0fn] cfÇgf rf/ xftdf zª\v, rj|m, ubf / kßjLh lnPsf 5g\ . u?8sf] r]K6f]
5ftL, 7'nf] lgwf/, k'i6 ufnf, ;'l/nf] gfs, af6'nf] cf“vf lgs} cfsif{s b]lvG5g\ . pgsf] 3'“3l/Psf] skfn,
´f]lnPsf sfgsf s'08n, xftdf nufPsf df]6f afnf, 3f“6L / kfv'/fdf gfusf] dfnf dgdf]xs b]lvG5g\ .
dg'io cfsf/sf u?8sf] v'6\6fdf cf}“nfsf] ;6\6f gª\u|f / e'Tnf tyf kv]6f o; d"lt{sf ljz]iftfx¿ x'g\ .
s]xL k|frLg d"lt{x¿
k|frLg g]kfnL d"lt{snfsf k|s/0fdf n'lDagLsf] j~h/fxL / ltnf}/fsf]6sf] pTvggaf6 k|fKt k|:t/ tyf
6]/fsf]6fsf s]xL d'xf/–d"lt{x¿ pNn]vgLo 5g\ . clt k|frLg dflgPsf oL d"lt{x¿nfO{ k'/ftŒjljb\x¿n]
ls/f“tsfnLg d"lt{sf kª\lStdf /fv]sf 5g\ . oL k|frLg d"lt{df oIf, ;"o,{ dft[b]jL, gGbL cflb cfs[ltx¿
b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 .
k|frLg g]kfnL k|:t/ d"lt{snfsf k|s/0fdf ‘k|frLg d"lt{’ elgPsf t/ ltlyldlt gv'n]sf s]xL d"lt{x¿
pknAw 5g\ . kf“rf}“ ztfAbL cufl8sf x'g'k5{ eGg] cg'dfg ul/Psf oL d"lt{df xf“8Lufp“df kfOPsf] ‘k'?if’
jf ‘oIf’ sf] w8 pNn]Vo 5 . r'g9'ªu\ fdf ag]sf] of] d"lt{ xfn /fli6«o ;ª\u|xfnosf] ;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 .
d"lt{sf] 6fpsf], xft tyf v'6\6f x/fO;s]sf 5g\ . n}gl;+x afª\b]nsf cg';f/ of] d"lt{ klxnf] ztfAbLsf]
x'g'k5{ .
s]xL ljåfg\x¿ kz'klt cfo{3f6l:yt lj¿kfIfsf] kfiff0f d"lt{nfO{ g]kfnsf] ;jf{lws k'/fgf] d"lt{ dfG5g\ /
o;nfO{ ls/f“tsfnsf] eG5g\ . o; cltl/St kz'klt d[u:ynLl:yt b'O{e'h ls/f“t]Zj/sf] d"lt{ klg
pNn]vgLo 5 . b'O{e'h ls/f“t]Zj/sf] d"lt{ xfn /fli6«o ;ª\u|xfnosf] ;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 .
lj¿kfIfsf] d"lt{ e'O“af6 tLg lkm6 dfly p7]sf] 5 . s8f ;]tf]–v}/f] 9'ª\ufdf of] d"lt{ ag]sf] 5 . z/L/sf]
cfwf efu e'O“d'lg wl;Psf] 5 / lrp“8f] cln r'Rrf] k/]sf] 5 . lgwf/df t];|f] g]q klg b]vfOPsf] 5 .
d"lt{df df+;n k|efj :ki6 ¿kdf b]vfOPsf] 5 . zf/Ll/s cg'kftsf lx;fan] lj¿kfIfsf] 3f“6L 5f]6f]
b]lvG5 . k'8s \ f] z/L/, uf]nf] / 8f]nf] cfs[lt, 3'd|]sf] skfn, df]6f cf]7, ;fgf cf“vf, 5f]6f] uw{g, 7'nf]
lgwf/, r]K6f] 5ftL cflbnfO{ o; d"lt{sf] ljz]iftfsf ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 .
Birupāksha, Pashupati Aryaghaat, stone

lnR5ljsfnLg d"lt{snf
g]kfnsf] k|dfl0fs Oltxf; O= ;+= $)) lt/ lnR5lj sfnb]lv k|f/De x'G5 . O= ;+= $*^ sf]
rf“u'gf/fo0fdf /x]sf] lnR5lj /fhf dfgb]jsf] :tDe–clen]v xfn;Dd k|fKt klxnf] clen]v dflgG5 . t;y{
Oltxf;ljb\x¿n] lnR5lj sfnnfO{ g]kfnsf] cflwsfl/s Oltxf;sf] ‘k|f/De ljGb'’ dfg]sf 5g\ .
lnR5lj sfndf ag]sf 9'ªu\ fsf cg]sf}“ k|dfl0fs d"lt{x¿ pknAw 5g\ . snfTds z}nLsf b[li6n] tTsfnLg
d"lt{snfdf s]xL pNn]vgLo ljz]iftfx¿ b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 . dgjh| jh|frfo{sf cg';f/ lnR5lj sfnLg
d"lt{x¿df ljz]if u/]/ cg'kftsf] l7s l7s lx;fa, ;fwf/0f cfe"if0fx¿sf] dfq k|of]u, s6fOdf uf]nf]kg /
ldlxgkgf, cfª\lus nflnTosf] ljz]if k|of]u Pjd\ ljz]if u/]/ RofK6f] 9'ªu\ fdf Psfk6\l6 dfq vf]k]/
cfs[ltx¿ p7fpg] k|j[lQ kfOG5 .
lji0f'ljj|mfGt -lqljj|md_
lnR5lj sfnLg d"lt{x¿sf ;Gbe{df /fhf dfgb]jn] :yfkgf u/]sf] nflhDkf6 / kz'klt ltnuª\ufl:yt
sl/a kGw| ;o jif{ k'/fgf] lji0f'ljj|mfGtsf] d"lt{sf] pNn]v ;j{k|yd cfp“5 . dgjh| jh|frfo{sf cg';f/
k|dfl0fs tyf pknAw snfk"0f{ k|frLg d"lt{dWo] oxL jfdg -lji0f'ljj|mfGt_ sf] d"lt{ xfdL ;j{k|yd kfp“5f}“ .
lji0f'ljj|mfGt cyf{t\ lqljj|mdsf] of] d"lt{ nflhDkf6 / kz'klt ltnuª\uf b'j} 7fp“df kfOPsf] 5 . z}nLut
b[li6sf]0fn] klg b'j} Pp6} lsl;dsf] b]lvG5 . clkt' t'ngfTds ¿kdf x]bf{ nflhDkf6sf] d"lt{df snfTds
;"Idtf / ;'Gb/tf a9L b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 .
cfÇgf afa' /fhf wd{b]jsf] d[To'kl5 /fhf ePsf dfgb]jn] cfÇgL cfdf /fHojtLsf] kltljof]uaf6 lj/xL
dgnfO{ zfGt kfg{ sf7df8f}“sf] /fhkQg -jt{dfg nflhDkf6_ df Pp6f ljzfn dlGb/ agfpg nufPsf
lyP . dlGb/ ag]kl5 /fhfn] To; dlGb/df lji0f'ljj|mfGt cyf{t\ eujfg\\ lji0f'sf] kf“rf}“ cjtf/ jfdgsf]
cg'kd k|:t/ d"lt{ :yfkgf u/]sf lyP eGg] pNn]v kfOG5 .
O= ;+= $^& df ag]sf] nflhDkf6sf] d"lt{df eujfg\\ lji0f'nfO{ lqljj|mdsf ¿kdf cf7 cf]6f e'hf;lxt
a|xd\ f08nfO{ tLg kfb -kfOnf_ df cf]u6\g vf]h]sf] cnf}lss b[Zo b]vfOPsf] 5 . o; d"lt{df jfdg
cjtf/sf ¿kdf eujfg\\ lji0f'sf] ljj|mfGt cyf{t\ k/fj|mdL :j¿k b]vfOPsf] 5 . lqljj|mdsf] afof“ v'6\6f
:ju{tk{m / bfof“ v'6\6f kftfntk{m pGd'v 5g\ . pgsf] bfof“ kfp z]ifgfusf] xTs]nfdfly /x]sf] 5 . To;nfO{
gfd'rL gfdsf /fhf alnsf cg'r/n] tfGg vf]h]sf] b[Zo b]lvG5 . afof“ v'66\ flg/ a6'ssf] e]if wf/0f u/]sf
lji0f'nfO{ snzaf6 kfgL vGofp“b} c3{ lbO/x]sf /fhf alnsf] cfs[lt b]lvG5 . /fhfsf k5fl8 pgsL /fgL
/ o1sf] 3f]8fsf b'O{ hgf kx/]bf/x¿ :t'lt d'b|fdf b]lvG5g\ . tLdWo] Ps hgf plePsf 5g\ / csf]{ afof“
xftdf t/jf/ lnP/ a;]sf 5g\ . plePsf kx/]bf/sf] k5fl8 o1sf] 3f]8f b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 . dfly;Dd
p7]sf] lqljj|mdsf] afof“ v'6\6fn] /fx'sf] d'vdf 5f]Psf] 5 . v'6\6fsf] tn xfjfdf aN8\ofª nufO/x]sf] s'g}
cfs[lt b]lvG5 .
lqljj|mdn] cfÇgf] k|d'v bfof“ xft sd/df /fv]sf 5g\ . c¿ bfof“ xftx¿n] ubf / rj|m lnPsf 5g\ .
pgsf] k|d'v afof“ xftdf wg' /x]sf] 5 h'g lgs} c:ki6 b]lvO;s]sf] 5 . c¿ afof“ xftx¿n] 9fn / zª\v
lnPsf 5g\ . b]jtfn] lz/df d's'6, sfgdf s'08n / sDd/df k]6L wf/0f u/]sf 5g\ . b]jtfsf] bfof“ 5]pdf
sdnsf] af]6 lnPsL nIdLsf] cfs[lt b]lvG5 . nIdLsf] k5fl8 dfgj cfs[ltsf] kv]6f ;lxtsf u?8
c“h'nL hf]8]/ a;]sf] b]lvG5 . u?8sf] dfly xft hf]8]/ pl8/x]sf ljBfw/ b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 .

nflhDkf6df kfOPsf] of] lqljj|md cyf{t\ lji0f'ljj|mfGtsf] clt dxŒjk"0f{ d"lt{ clxn] lgs} lvO;s]sf] 5 .
xfn of] d"lt{ /fli6«o ;ª\u|xfnosf] ;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 . o; d"lt{nfO{ snfljb\ :6]nf q\mofdl/rn]
‘d"lt{snfsf] ck"j{ pbfx/0f’ eg]sf 5g\ .
Viṣṇu Vikrānta, 467 CE, stone, National Museum, Chauni, Kathmandu
hnzog lji0f'
g]kfnL d"lt{snfsf k|;ª\udf plePsf / a;]sf lji0f' cfs[ltx¿sf] t'ngfdf kN6]/ /x]sf lji0f' cfs[ltx¿
lgs} sd kfOPsf 5g\ . xfn pknAw hnzog lji0f'sf d"lt{x¿df a'9fgLns07sf] eJo d"lt{, afnfh'sf]
d"lt{ / xg'dfg9f]sfsf] e08f/vfndf /x]sf d"lt{ pNn]vgLo 5g\ .
P]ltxfl;stf / snfTdstfsf b[li6n] a'9fgLns07sf] d"lt{ pNn]Vo 5 . of] d"lt{ ;ftf}“ ztfAbLdf lji0f'u'Ktsf]
kfnfdf ag]sf] lyof] . rf/ cf]6f e'hf;lxt z]ifgfudfly kN6]sf eujfg\\ lji0f'sf] of] d"lt{ juf{sf/
hns'08df cjl:yt 5 . j/b d'b|fdf /xsf b]jtfsf] tNnf] bfof“ xftn] kb\djLh lnPsf] 5 . af“sL
xftx¿df rj|m, ubf / zª\v /x]sf 5g\ . gfusf P3f/ cf]6f 6fpsfn] eujfg\\sf] lz/nfO{ cf>o lbPsf
5g\ . gf/fo0fsf] lz/ b]jd's'6n] ;'zf]let 5 . sfgdf s'08n, sf“waf6 3'“8f;Dd o1f]kjLt, sDd/df
k6'sf / o;d'lg pQ/Lo af“lwPsf] 5 .
Jalaśayana Viṣṇu, 7th-century CE, stone, Budhanilkantha, Kathmandu
j/fx cjtf/
j/fx cjtf/sf] pTs[i6 d"lt{ sf7df8f}“ w'djf/fxLdf kfOPsf] lyof] . of] d"lt{ 5}6f}“ ztfAbLsf] x'g'k5{ eGg]
cg'dfg ul/Psf] 5 . o; d"lt{df eujfg\\ lji0f'sf] j/fx :j¿knfO{ bzf{OPsf] 5 . of] d"lt{ !=@ ld6/ cUnf]
5 . b]jtfnfO{ b'O{ e'hfo'St dfgj z/L/df j/fx -ag]n_ sf] 6fpsf];lxt b]vfOPsf] 5 . pgsf] bfof“
v'6\6fn] gfunfO{ 6]s]sf] 5 . sDd/df /flvPsf] bfof“ xftn] b'i6nfO{ gfz ul/5f8\g] b]jtfsf] b[9
;ª\sNknfO{ cleJoSt u/]sf] 5 . afof“ xftn] zª\v lnPsf] 5 . j/fxsf] 5ftLsf df+;k]zLx¿ p7]sf
b]lvG5g\ . afof“ e'hfdf /x]sL k[YjL dftfsf] cfs[ltnfO{ j/fxsf] y't'gf]n] k|]dk"j{s :kz{ ul//x]sf] b]lvG5 .
j/fxn] k[YjLdftfnfO{ cfÇgf] afof“ kfv'/fdf cf>o lbO/fv]sf] x'gfn] lhpsf] ;Gt'ng ldnfpg d"lt{sf/n]
j/fxsf] d"lt{nfO{ cln 6]9f] u/L bfof“ xftnfO{ hf“3df cf8 lng nufPsf] b]lvG5 . cfª\lus cg'kftn] o'St
of] d"lt{ lgs} k|efjk"0f{ b]lvG5 .
Varāha Avatār, 6th-century CE, stone
ljZj¿k -ljZjlj/f6_
rf“u'gf/fo0f dlGb/ kl/;/df /x]sf] ljZjlj/f6 jf ljZj¿ksf] /rgfdf eujb\uLtfdf jl0f{t eujfg\
>Ls[i0fsf] lj/f6 :j¿kh:tf] hl6n ljifonfO{ cToGt} snfTds 9ª\un] cleJoSt ul/Psf] 5 . cf7f}“
ztfAbLsf] o; d"lt{sf] bfof“k6\l6sf] s'gf clxn] ef“lrO;s]sf] 5 .
d"lt{sf] s]Gb|Lo kfqsf ¿kdf ;deª\u d'b|fdf ;Lwf plePsf ljZj¿k b]lvG5g\ . d"lt{sf lz/x¿sf]
l:yltnfO{ b[li6ut ubf{ d"n ¿kdf o;sf b;cf]6f lz/ lyP eGg] a'l´G5 . oLdWo] xfn vl08t cj:yfdf
/x]sf] ;a}eGbf dflyNnf] lz/ ;DejtM a|xd\ fsf] xf] . logsf] bfof“ 5]pdf rf/ e'hf;lxt sdnbndfly
al;/x]sf lzjsf] cfs[lt b[li6uf]r/ x'G5 eg] afof“ 5]pdf ;DejtM ;f]xL d'b|fdf lji0f'sf] cfs[lt cª\lst
x'g'k5{ h'g xfn nf]k eO;s]sf] 5 . ljZj¿ksf cGo gf} cf]6f lz/x¿ tLg tLg cf]6fsf lx;fan] tLg
kª\lStdf /x]sf 5g\ .
ljZj¿ksf gf} cf]6f lz/dWo] ;a}eGbf tNnf] nx/sf] larsf] d'vfs[lt k'?iff]Qdn] ls/L6d's'6 wf/0f u/]sf
5g\ . bfof“sf] d'vfs[lt cln /f}b| d'b|fsf] 5 eg] afof“ d'vfs[lt ;f}Do b]lvG5 . larsf] nx/sf tLg cf]6}
d'vfs[lt Ps} k|sf/sf 5g\ . dflyNnf] nx/df larsf] d'vfs[ltn] h6fd's'6 wf/0f u/]sf] 5 eg] bfof“sf]
d'vfs[ltn] ls/L6d's'6 wf/0f u/]sf] 5 . ljZj¿ksf b'j} 5]pdf c“h'nL af“w]sf h6fwf/L of]uLx¿,
nf]skfnx¿, OGb|, od, s'a]/ cflbsf cfs[ltx¿ cª\lst 5g\ .
ljZj¿ksf b; cf]6f e'hfx¿ 5g\ . bfof“ xftx¿ j|mdzM kmnljz]if, aGr/f], t/jf/, af0f / rj|m tyf
afof“ xftx¿ j|mdzM sf}df]bsL ubf, wg', 9fn, rd/ tyf zª\vaf6 ;';lHht 5g\ . b]jtfsf kfpnfO{
hldgaf6 cfwf aflx/ lg:s]sL e"b]jL / aundf bfof“ afof“ b'O{ hgf gfu/fhx¿n] ;dfPsf 5g\ . k|To]s
gfu/fh;“u} Ps Ps hf]8f xfQL a;]sf 5g\ . To;d'lg z]ifgfudfly n]6]sf rf/ e'hfn] o'St z]ifzfoL lji0f'
5g\ . lji0f'sf] tNnf] bfof“ xftn] 7'nf] d';n af]s]sf] 5 eg] dflyNnf] afof“ xftn] b'O{d'v] ds/;lxtsf] nfdf]
xn af]s]sf] 5 . ljZj¿ksf] bfof“ afof“ k'ikjiff{ ul//x]sf gf/L cfs[ltx¿ -;DejtM nIdL / pj{zL_ 5g\ .

afof“kl6\6sf gf/L cfs[ltsf] aundf c“h'nL af“wL pl8/x]sf u?8 /x]sf] 5 . bfof“kl6\6sf gf/L cfs[ltsf]
aundf uf08Ljwg' af]sL o'4sf] kl/wfgdf c“h'nL af“wL plePsf ch'{g b]lvG5g\ .
Viśvarūpa, c. 8th-century CE, stone, Changu Narayan, Bhaktapur
sflnofbdg
xg'dfg9f]sf b/af/df cjl:yt sflngfudfly ljho xfl;n ul//x]sf s[i0fsf] d"lt{ cToGt} nflnTok"0f{ 5 .
sflnofbdgsf] o; d"lt{df afns s[i0fn] zlStzfnL gfusf] 6fpsf]dfly v'6\6fn] s'lNr/x]sf] b[Zo
b]vfOPsf] 5 . s[i0fsf] z/L/df b]lvg] nrstf / gfusf] cfs[ltdf b]lvg] hl6n sflnu9L o; d"lt{sf
ljz]iftf x'g\ . o; d"lt{sf] z}nL a'9fgLns07sf] hnzog lji0f' / w'djf/fxLsf] j/fxcjtf/;“u lgs} d]n
vfG5 . o; d"lt{sf] lgdf{0faf/] l7s ltlyldlt 1ft x'g ;s]sf] 5}g tyflk lnR5lj sfnLg d"lt{x¿df kfOg]
ljz]iftfnfO{ b[li6ut u/]/ k'/ftŒjljb\x¿n] of] d"lt{ 5}6f}“÷;ftf}“ ztfAbLsf] x'g'k5{ eGg] cg'dfg u/]sf 5g\ .
of] d"lt{ c+z'jdf{sf] s}nfzs'6 ejgaf6 dNn /fhf k|tfk dNnn] j;Gtk'/ b/af/df Nofpg nufPsf lyP
eGg] hg>'lt kfOG5 .
Kāliyadamana, c. 6th/7th-century CE, stone, Basantapur Durbar, Kathmandu
df/ljho -df/cfj|md0f_
xfdLsxf“ uf}td a'4sf] hLjgLdf cfwfl/t b[Zox¿ cª\lst d"lt{x¿ Go"g ;ª\Vofdf kfOPsf 5g\ . o;
;Gbe{df sf7df8f}“ oª\ufnlx6Ldf kfOPsf] gjf}“ ztfAbLsf] d"lt{ pNn]Vo 5 . l;4fy{ uf}tdnfO{ a'4Tj k|fKt
x'g'cufl8 ePsf] df/cfj|md0fsf] k|s/0fdf cfwfl/t of] d"lt{ kmns xfn /fli6«o ;ª\u|xfnosf] ;ª\sngdf
/x]sf] 5 . r"g9'ªu\ fdf lgld{t of] d"lt{ kmnssf] Ps efudfq clxn] ;'/lIft cj:yfdf 5 . l;4fy{sf] cfs[lt
cª\lst v08 x/fO;s]sf] 5 . d"lt{df l;4fy{ uf}tdsf] Psfu| Wofgdf vnn k'¥ofpg] x]t'n] k|xf/ ub}{ u/]sf
eofgs :j¿ksf lk;frx¿, oIfx¿, sª\sfn d"lt{ jf rfd'08f / aGr/f] p7fPsf u0f]zsf cfs[ltx¿
b]lvG5g\ . d"lt{df s6fIf ub}{ u/]sf df/sf b'O{ cf]6L ;'Gb/L 5f]/Lx¿ klg b]lvG5g\ . d"lt{df bfgjx¿sf]
eofgs :j¿k / ;'Gb/Lx¿sf] nflnTok"0f{ cfs[lt b]vfpgdf snfsf/n] u/]sf] ldlxg]t k|z+;gLo 5 .
Māra, c. 6th /7th-century CE, stone, National Museum, Chauni, Kathmandu
gM3n6f]nsf d"lt{ kmnsx¿

sf7df8f}“sf] gM3n6f]ndf k'/fgf] 9'ªu\ ]wf/fd'lg k|:t/sf d"lt{ kmnssf s]xL 6'j|mfx¿ k|fKt ePsf 5g\ h'g
xfn /fli6«o ;ª\xfnosf] ;ª\sngdf /x]sf 5g\ . Pp6f 6'j|mfdf s'g} b]jL jf /fgL / pgsf] bfof“ afof“
3'ld|Psf] skfn ePsf jo:s kl/rfl/sfx¿, bf];|f] 6'j|mfdf 3'“8f 6]sL :gfg ug{ nfu]sL gf/L cfs[lt / t];|f]
6'j|mfdf xftdf k"mn lnPsf k'?ifsf] cfs[lt / 5]pdf 7'nf] :tg ePsL jo:s gf/L cfs[lt 5g\ . oL
d"lt{x¿df d"lt{sf/n] 3'ld|Psf] skfn, uf]nf] / x“l;nf] d'v, ljsl;t :tg tyf lgtDa / nlRsPsf] z/L/
ePsL gf/L cfs[ltnfO{ ;fsf/ u/]sf 5g\ . /fli6«o ;ª\u|xfnosf] ljj/l0fsfdf oL d"lt{sf cfs[ltx¿nfO{
j|mdzM ck0ff{sf ¿kdf kfj{tL, a|x\drf/Lsf] e]ifdf lzj, g[TodUg lzj–kfj{tL egL j0f{g ul/Psf] 5 .
oL d"lt{ kmnsx¿ ;+:s[t jfª\udosf dxfslj sflnbf;sf] s'df/;Dejdf plNnlvt eujfg\ lzj /
kfj{tLsf] ljjfx k|;ª\u, s'df/sf] hGd tyf s}nfz kj{tsf] ofqf;DaGwL k|s/0fdf cfwfl/t 5g\ . d"lt{df
b]lvg] gf/L cfs[ltx¿sf] hLpsf] nRsfO, kf/bzL{ j:q / zfGt, ;f}Do tyf x“l;nf d'vfs[ltx¿ o; d"lt{sf
ljz]iftf x'g\ .
Narrative Reliefs from Naghal Tole, c. 6th /7th-century, stone, National Museum, Chauni, Kathmandu

dfofb]jL
b]jkQgdf kfOPsf] dfofb]jLsf] d"lt{df zfSod'lg a'4sf] hGd k|s/0faf/] ;'Gb/ sfJofTds j0f{g b[li6uf]r/
x'G5 . gjf}“ ztfAbLdf ag]sf] of] d"lt{ To; ;dodf ag]sf c¿ d"lt{dWo] ;jf]{Ts[i6 dflgG5 . d"lt{df
dfofb]jL kmnk"mnn] nlqPsf] ¿vsf] xf“uf] ;dfP/ lqeª\u d'b|fdf plePsL l5g\ . ;“u} k|efd08nn] o'St
ePsf x[i6k'i6 gjhft afns l;4fy{ sdnsf kftdfly plePsf 5g\ . dflyaf6 b'O{ cf]6L cK;/fn]
afnsnfO{ sdnsf kft;lxtsf] hn vGofp“b} u/]sf b[Zo b]lvG5 . dfofb]jLsf] ;nSs k/]sf] z/L/, kftnf]
j:q, cfs[ltx¿ / ¿vlarsf] ;Gt'ng o; l/lnkm d"lt{sf ljz]iftf x'g\ . sfnf] 9'ªu\ fdf lgld{t of] d"lt{
xfn /fli6«o ;ª\u|xfnosf] ;ª\sngdf /x]sf] 5 .
Māyā Devi, stone, National Museum, Chauni, Kathmandu

Unit Three: AESTHETICS
Chapter 1: Definition and Classification of Art

Definition
Every object, visualized by our eyes has shape, form, and color. To draw these objects in a naturalistic
or realistic way is an art. To express the shapes, forms, and, colors those located in one’s imagination
in a meaningful visual approach is also an art.
Human emotion is the prime source of art. Sans art, the human community could never imagine a
society or a nation. Therefore, art is the base of the human civilization. Man is an imaginative creature.
He/she is creative but imitative too. Bestowed with these qualities, man has been creating art from the
time immemorial to till to date.
Works of art help us to define ourselves in time and space. The more we know about our past, the
better we understand our present. The history of art is the history of mankind. The history of art is a
saga of the evolution of mankind. This story started from the prehistoric period, the period before the
existence of the written document is quite fascinating and extended.
Particular art of a particular community or nation is not just an asset of a particular community or
nation but an asset of the whole world. Therefore, art is ubiquitous. Art is not meant for a certain
period but ages and ages. Therefore, art is universal. An artist would die but art never dies. Therefore,
art is eternal.
Meaning, objectives, and utilities of art have been changing following time, place, and situation. To
prehistoric people art was a means of protecting their lives. They used to acquire encouragement to get
victory over their enemies (beasts) through art.
Some five thousand years before our time, the ancient Egyptians believed art to be a means of
preserving life after death. The meaning of art to the ancient Greeks was an imitation of beauty. During
the Renaissance in the fifteenth-sixteenth century Italy, it was emphasized that nature should be
depicted with reality and beauty.
During the nineteenth-twentieth century art was innovated from different views. Consequently,
different isms and schools were originated, e.g. Romanticism, Realism, Impressionism,
Post-Impressionism, Surrealism, Cubism, Expressionism, Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art,
Installation, etc. All these isms and schools have laready presented art in a new and modern way.
In today’s world even isms, styles, or schools are no longer significant. Today’s artists are desperately
in quest of something new and individual identity. Modern science and technology have provided
contemporary artists with multiple facilities and options to use a variety of media and materials for
self-expression.
Today so many artists have been creating absolutely a unique world of the visual arts employing new
methods and materials, leaving behind the conventional practices of using a brush, color, and canvas.
Art: Multiplicity of Forms, Types and Genres
Before trying to define art, the first thing to be aware of is its huge scope.
Art is an activity that encompasses a host of disciplines, as evidenced by the range of words and
phrases which have been invented to describe its various forms. Examples of such phraseology
include: 'Fine Arts', 'Liberal Arts', 'Visual Arts', 'Decorative Arts', 'Applied Arts', 'Design', 'Crafts',
'Performing Arts', and so on.
Drilling down, many specific categories are classified according to the materials used, such as:
drawing, painting, sculpture, glass art, metal art, photography, animation, and etc. Sub-categories
include: painting in oils, watercolors, acrylics; sculpture in bronze, stone, wood, porcelain; to name but
a tiny few. Other sub-branches include different genre categories, like: narrative, portrait, genre-works,
landscape, still-life.
In addition, entirely new forms of art have emerged during the 20th-century, such as: assemblage,
collage, earthworks, installation, graffiti, and video, as well as the broad conceptualist movement
which challenges the essential value of an objective 'work of art'.
Definition of Art: Limited by Era and Culture
Another thing to be aware of is the fact that art reflects and belongs to the period and culture from
which it is spawned. After all, how can we compare prehistoric cave painting, or native Oceanic art, or
primitive African art, with Michelangelo's 16th-century Old Testament frescoes on the walls and
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel?
Political events are the most obvious era-factors that influence art: for example, art styles like
Expressionism, Dada, and Surrealism were products of political uncertainty and upheavals. Religion is
a major cultural variable that alters the shape of the artistic envelope. The Baroque style was strongly
influenced by the Catholic Counter-Reformation, while Islamic art forbids certain types of artistic
iconography.
Thus, the world of art is a highly complex entity, not only in terms of its multiplicity of forms and
types, but also in terms of its historical and cultural roots. Therefore a simple definition, or even a
broad consensus as to what can be labeled art, is likely to prove highly elusive.
History of the Meaning of Art
Classical Meaning of Art
The original classical definition – derived from the Latin word 'ars' (meaning 'skill' or 'craft') – is a
useful starting point. This broad approach leads to art being defined as: 'the product of a body of
knowledge, most often using a set of skills'.
Thus Renaissance painters and sculptors were viewed merely as highly skilled artisans. No wonder
Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo went to such efforts to elevate the status of artists (and by
implication art itself) onto a more intellectual plane.
Post-Renaissance Meaning of Art
The emergence of the great European academies of art reflected the gradual upgrading of the subject.
New and enlightened branches of philosophy also contributed to this change of image. By
the mid-18th-century, the mere demonstration of technical skills was insufficient to qualify as art – it
now needed an 'aesthetic' component – it had to be seen as something 'beautiful'.
At the same time, the concept of 'utilitarianism' (functionality or usefulness) was used to distinguish
the more noble 'fine arts' (art for art's sake), like painting and sculpture, from the lesser forms of
'applied art', such as crafts and commercial design work, and the ornamental 'decorative arts', like
textile design and interior design.
Thus, by the end of the 19th-century, art was separated into at least two broad categories: namely, fine
art and the rest – a situation that reflected the cultural snobbery and moral standards of the European
establishment.

Furthermore, despite some erosion of faith in the aesthetic standards of Renaissance ideology – which
remained a powerful influence throughout the world of fine art – even painting and sculpture had to
conform to certain aesthetic rules in order to be considered 'true art.
Meaning of Art During the Early 20th-Century
Then came Cubism (1907-14), which rocked the establishment of fine arts to its foundations. Not
simply because Picasso and Braque introduced a non-naturalistic branch of painting and sculpture, but
because it shattered the monotheistic Renaissance approach to how art related to the world around it.
Thus, Cubism's main contribution was to act as a sort of catalyst for a host of new movements which
greatly expanded the theory and practice of art, such as: Supermatism, Constructivism, Dada,
Neo-Plasticism, Surrealism and Conceptual art, as well as various realist styles, such as Social and
Socialist Realism. In practice, this proliferation of new styles and artistic techniques led to a new
broadening of the meaning and definition of art.
In its escape from its 'Renaissance straitjacket', and all the associated rules concerning 'objectivity' (e.g.
on perspective, useable materials, content, composition, and so on), fine art now boasted a significant
element of 'subjectivity'. Artists suddenly found themselves with far greater freedom to create
paintings and sculptures according to their own subjective values. In fact, one might say that from this
point 'art' started to become 'indefinable'.
Meaning of Art Post-World War II
The cataclysm of the World War II led to the demise of Paris as the capital of world art, and its
replacement by New York. This new American orientation encouraged art to become more of a
commercial product, and loosen its connection with existing traditions of aestheticism – a trend
furthered by the emergence of Abstract Expressionism, Pop-Art, and the activities of the new breed of
celebrity artists like Andy Warhol.
All of a sudden, even the most mundane items and concepts became elevated to the status of 'art'.
Under the influence of this populist approach, conceptualists introduced new art forms, like
assemblage, installation, video art and performance.
Postmodernism and the Meaning of Art
The redefinition of art during the last three decades of the 20th-century has been lent added intellectual
weight by theorists of the postmodernist movement. According to the postmodernists, the focus has
shifted from artistic skill to the 'meaning' of the work produced. In addition, 'how' a work is
'experienced' by spectators has become a critical component in its aesthetic value.
The phenomenal success of contemporary artists like Damien Hirst, as well as collaborative artist duo
Gilbert and George, is clear evidence in support of this view.
The Evolution of Fine Arts
After primitive forms of cave painting, figurine sculptures and other types of ancient art, there
occurred the golden era of Greek art and other schools of Classical Antiquity.
The sacking of Rome (c.400-450) introduced the dead period of the Dark Ages (c.450-1000),
brightened only by Celtic art and designs, after which the history of art in the West is studded with a
wide variety of artistic 'styles' or 'movements' – such as: Gothic (c.1100-1300), Renaissance (c.1300-
1600), Baroque (17th-century), Neo-Classicism (18th-century), Romanticism (18th-19th-century),

Realism and Impressionism (19th-century), Cubism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Abstract
Expressionism and Pop-Art (20th-century).
The Tradition
Fine art was the traditional type of Academic art taught at the great schools, such as the the Accademia
dell'Arte del Disegno in Florence, the Accademia di San Luca in Rome, the Académie des Beaux-
Arts in Paris, and the Royal Academy in London.
One of the key legacies of the academies was their theory of linear perspective and their ranking of
the painting genres, which classified all works into five types: history, portrait, genre-scenes, landscape
or still-life.
Patrons
Ever since the advent of Christianity, the largest and most significant sponsor of fine art has been the
Christian Church. Not surprisingly therefore, the largest body of painting and/or sculpture has
been religious art, as has other specific forms like icons and altarpiece art.
How is Art Classified?
Traditional and contemporary art encompasses activities as diverse as: Architecture, music, opera,
theatre, dance, painting, sculpture, illustration, drawing, cartoons, printmaking, ceramics, stained glass,
photography, installation, video, film and cinematography, to name but a few.
All these activities are commonly referred to as 'the Arts' and are commonly classified into several
overlapping categories, such as: fine art, visual art, plastic art, decorative art, applied art,
and performing art.
Disagreement persists as to the precise composition of these categories, but here is a generally
accepted classification.
Fine Arts
This category includes those artworks that are created primarily for aesthetic reasons rather than for
commercial or functional use. Designed for its uplifting, life-enhancing qualities, fine art typically
denotes the traditional, Western European 'high arts', such as:
Drawing: Using charcoal, chalk, crayon, pastel or with pencil or pen and ink.
Painting: Using oils, watercolor, gouache, acrylics, ink and wash, or the more old-fashioned tempra
or encaustic paints.
Printmaking: Using simple methods like woodcuts or stencils, the more demanding techniques of
engraving, etching and lithography, or the more modern forms like screen-printing, foil imaging or
giclee prints.
Sculpture: In bronze, stone, marble, wood, or clay.
Visual Arts
Visual art includes all the fine arts as well as new media and contemporary forms of expression such as
Assemblage, Collage, Conceptual art, Installation and Performance art, as well as Photography, and
film-based forms like Video Art and Animation, or any combination thereof.
Another type, often created on a monumental scale is the new environmental land art.

Plastic Arts
The term plastic art typically denotes three-dimensional works employing materials that can be
molded, shaped or manipulated (plasticized) in some way: such as, clay, plaster, stone, metals, wood
(sculpture), paper (origami) and so on.
Decorative Arts
This category traditionally denotes functional but ornamental art forms, such as works in glass, clay,
wood, metal, or textile fabric. This includes all forms of jewelry and mosaic art, as well as ceramics,
furniture, furnishings, stained glass and tapestry art. Noted styles of decorative art include: Rococo
Art (1700-1800), Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (1848-55), Art Nouveau (c.1890-1914), Art Deco
(c.1925-40), etc.
Performance Arts
This type refers to public performance events.Traditional varieties include, theatre, opera, music, and
ballet. Contemporary performance art also includes any activity in which the artist's physical presence
acts as the medium. Thus it encompasses, mime, face or body painting, and the like. A hyper-modern
type of performance art is known as Happenings.
Applied Arts
This category encompasses all activities involving the application of aesthetic designs to everyday
functional objects. While fine art provides intellectual stimulation to the viewer, applied art creates
utilitarian items (a cup, a couch or sofa, a clock, a chair or table) using aesthetic principles in their
design.
Folk art is predominantly involved with this type of creative activity.
Applied art includes architecture, computer art, photography, industrial design, graphic design, fashion
design, interior design, as well as all decorative arts. Noted styles include, Bauhaus Design School, as
well as Art Nouveau, and Art Deco.
One of the most important forms of 20th-century applied art is architecture, notably super
tall skyscraper architecture, which dominates the urban environment in New York, Chicago, Hong
Kong and many other cities around the world.

Chapter 2: Art – Concerning Social, Political, and Philosophical Aspects
We find everything from paintings on the walls of caves and huge sculptures carved into the faces of
mountains to tiny pieces of jewelry or miniature paintings. All of these are art because they were made
by the human hand in an attempt to express human ideas and or emotions. Our response to such
objects depends a good deal on our own education and cultural biases. We may find some modern art
ugly or stupid or bewildering. We may think of all art as highbrow or elitist even though we like
certain art enough to see them over and over. At first glance, a piece of art may seem odd simply
because we do not have the reference points with which we can judge the art good or bad.
If a certain age spends an enormous of money to build and decorate churches (as in
twelfth-century France) and another spends the same kind of money on palaces (like eighteenth-
century France), we learn about what each age values the most.
We may admire the massiveness of Egyptian architecture, but find it hard to appreciate why such
energies were used for the cult of the dead. When confronted with the art of another age (or even our
own art, for that matter), several questions we can ask of ourselves and the art may lead us to greater
understanding.
For what was this piece of art made? : This is essentially a question of context. Most of the religious
paintings in museums were originally meant to be seen in churches in very specific settings. To
imagine them in their original setting helps us to understand that they hand a devotional purpose that is
lost when they are seen on a museum wall. To ask about the original setting, then, helps us to ask
further whether the painting is devotional or meant as a teaching tool or to serve some other purpose.
The setting is crucial. A frescoed wall on a public building is meant to be seen by many people, while
a fresco on the wall of an aristocratic home is meant for a much smaller, more elite class of viewer.
The calligraphy decorating an Islamic mosque tells us much about the importance of the sacred
writings of Islam. A sculpture designed for a wall niche is going to have a shape different from one
designed to be seen by walking around it. Similarly, art made under official sponsorship of an
authoritarian government must be read in a far different manner than art produced by underground
artists who have no standing with the government, Finally, art may be purely decorative or it may have
a didactic purpose, but (and here is a paradox) purely decorative art may teach us while didactic art
may end up being purely decorative.
What, if anything, does this piece of art hope to communicate? : This question is one of intellectual
or emotional context. Funeral sculpture may reflect the grief of the survivors, or a desire to
commemorate the achievements of the deceased or to affirm what the survivors believe about life after
death or a combination of these purposes. If we think of art as a variety of speech we can then inquire
of any artwork: What is it saying?
How was this piece of art made?: This question inquires into both the materials and the skills the
artist employs to turn materials into art. To learn to appreciate the craft of the artist is a first step
toward enjoying art for its worth as art to developing an "eye" for art. This requires looking at the
object as a crafted object. Thus, for example, a close examination of Michelangelo's Pieta shows the
pure smooth beauty of marble, while his Slaves demonstrates the roughness of stone and the sculptor's
effort to carve meaning from hard material. We might stand back to admire a painting as a whole, but
then to look closely at one portion of it teaches us the subtle manipulation of color and line that creates
the overall effect.

What is the composition of this artwork?: This question addresses how the artist 'composes' the
work. Much Renaissance painting uses a pyramidal construction so that the most important figure is at
the apex of the pyramid and lesser figures form the base. Some paintings presume something
happening outside the picture itself (Such as an unseen source of light); a cubist painting tries to render
simultaneous views of an object. At other times, an artist may enhance the composition by the
manipulation of color with a movement from light to dark or a stark contrast between dark and light, as
in the chiaroscuro of Baroque painting. In all of these cases, the artists intend to do something more
than merely 'depict' a scene; they appeal to our imaginative and intellectual powers as we enter into the
picture or engage the sculpture or look at their film.
The composition is not restricted to painting, Filmmakers compose with close-ups or tracking shots
just as sculptors carve for frontal or side views of an object. Since all of these techniques are designed
to make us see in a particular manner, only by thinking about composition do we begin to reflect on
what the artist has done? If we do not think about composition, we tend to take an artwork at 'face
value' and, as a consequence, are not training our "eye." Much contemporary imaging is done by the
power of mixing done on the computer.
What elements should we notice about a work of art?: Without pretending to exclusivity, we should
judge art based on the following three aspects:
Formal elements
- What kind of artwork is it?
- What materials are employed?
- What is its composition in terms of structure?
- In terms of pure form, how does this particular work look when compared to a similar work of the
same or another artist?
Symbolic elements
- What is this artwork attempting to say?
- Is its purpose didactic, propagandistic, to give pleasure, or what?
- How well do the formal elements contribute to the symbolic statement being attempted in the work
of art?
Social elements
- What is the context of this work of art?
- Who paid and why?
- Whose purposes does it serve?
At this level, many different philosophies come into play. A Marxist critic might judge a work in terms
of its sense of class or economic aspects, while a feminist critic might inquire whether it affirms
women or acts as an agent of subjugation or exploitation.
It is possible to restrict oneself to formal criticism of an artwork (Is this well done in terms of craft and
composition?), but such an approach does not do full justice to what the artist is trying to do.
Conversely, to judge every work purely in terms of social theory excludes the notion of artistic work
and, as a consequence, reduces art to politics or philosophy. For a fuller appreciation of art, then, all of
the elements mentioned above need to come into play.

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BFA 1st-Year: HISTORY OF ART AND AESTHETICS

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History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 1

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Bison, Altamira cave, Spain, c.11000-16000 BCE

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 4

The Aurochs, Lascaux cave, France, c.15000-14500 BCE

The Horse, Lascaux cave, France, c.15000-13000 BCE, 1.42 m long

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 5

The Lion Panel, Chauvet cave, France, c.25000-17000 BCE

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Seals from Mohenjo-Daro, Harappan culture, c. 2300-1750 BCE

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History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 28

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 29

Birupāksha, Pashupati Aryaghaat, stone

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 32

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 33

Viṣṇu Vikrānta, 467 CE, stone, National Museum, Chauni, Kathmandu

Jalaśayana Viṣṇu, 7th-century CE, stone, Budhanilkantha, Kathmandu

Varāha Avatār, 6th-century CE, stone

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 35

Viśvarūpa, c. 8th-century CE, stone, Changu Narayan, Bhaktapur

Kāliyadamana, c. 6th/7th-century CE, stone, Basantapur Durbar, Kathmandu

Māra, c. 6th /7th-century CE, stone, National Museum, Chauni, Kathmandu

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Māyā Devi, stone, National Museum, Chauni, Kathmandu

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 38

Chapter 1: Definition and Classification of Art

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 40

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 41

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 42

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 43

History of Art and Aesthetics: BFA 1st-Year 44

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