CHAPTER 3
 Cerebrospinal fluid – a clear fluid
that fills the ventricular system of
the brain.
 Cerbral cortex – The outermost layer
of gray matter of the cerebral
hemispheres, surrounds the cerebral
hemispheres.
Anatomical Directions
 Neuraxis – an imaginary line drawn
through the length of the CNS
 Anterior – toward the head
 Posterior – toward the tail
 Rostral – Toward the beak
 Caudal – Toward the tail, away from
the front of the face
 Dorsal – Toward the back
 Ventral – Toward the belly
 Lateral – Toward the side of the body
 Medial – Toward the middle of the
body
 Ipsilateral – Located on the same
side of the body
 Contralateral – Located on the
opposite side of the body
 Frontal section – parallel to the
forehead
 Horizontal section – parallel to the
ground
 Sagittal Section - Parallel to the
neuroaxis and perpendicular to the
ground
 Midsagittal plane – the plane
through the neuroaxis perpendicular
to the ground
Meninges – encases the CNS
 Dura mater – the outer layer, thick,
durable, tough and flexible.
 The Arachnoid membrane – The
middle layer, soft and spongy
 Pia mater – The layer that clings to
the surface of the brain, thin and
delicate.
Forebrain
 Telencephalon – Includes most of
the two symmetrical cerebral
hemispheres which make up the
cerebrum.
- Cerebral Hemispheres – made up
of the cerebral cortex, the limbic
system, and the basal ganglia.
- Cerebral Cortex – controls the
voluntary muscular movements
of the body, involves
consciousness.
- Basal Ganglia – Approve or reject
movement signals that the brain
sends.
- Limbic system – Regulate
emotion and memory while
dealing with senal stimulation
- Thalamus – Receives sensory
information from other areas in
the N. system, sends info to the
C.R
- Hypothalamus – maintains the
body at a balanced level
(homeostasis)/ controls
emotions
- Pituitary gland – regulates
growth, metabolism, and
reproduction through the
hormones that is produces.
Midbrain
 Mesencephalon
- Tectum – responsible for
auditory and visual reflexes
- Tegmentum – Relays inhibitory
signals to the thalamus and basal
nuclei, preventing unwanted
body movement(It’s a motor
center)
- Cerebral Aqueduct – allows for
CSF to flow between the 3rd
ventricle and 4th ventricle
- Reticular formation – Involves
somatic motor control,
cardiovascular control, pain
modulation, sleep and
consciousness, responds to
neural signals and brings them
consciousness
Hindbrain
 Metencephalon and
Myelencephalon
- Cerebellum – Muscle Control,
balance and movement
coordination
- Pons – sleep and arousal, relays
signals from forebrain to
cerebellum
- Medulla Oblongata – Helps
control vital processes.
- Brain stem – breathing, heart
rate and temperature
Lobes
 Frontal – Thinking, behavior, and
movement
 Temporal – Hearing, learning and
feelings
 Parietal – Language, touch, sensory
input
 Occipital – Sight
Spinal Cord – distribute motor fibers to the
effector organs of the body and to collect
somatosensory information to be passed to
the brain.
 Vertebral column – composed of 24
individual vertebrae, protects the
Spinal Cord
 Dorsal root – spinal root that
contains sensory fibers
 Ventral root – Spinal root that
contains ongoing motor fibers
Spinal Nerve – A peripheral nerve attached
to the spinal cord.
Cranial Nerve – A peripheral nerve attached
directly to the brain.
Olfactory bulb – The protrusion at the end
of the olfactory nerve, receives input from
the olfactory receptors
Autonomic nervous system – Concerned
with regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands.
Somatic nervous system – receives
information from the sensory organs and
that controls movements of the skeletal
muscles.
Parasympathetic division of the ANS –
supports activities that are involved with
increases in the body’s supply of stored
energy
CHAPTER 4
Psychopharmacology – The study of the
effects of drugs on the NS and behavior
 Drugs – An exogenous chemical not
necessary for normal cellular
functioning that significantly alters
the functions of certain cells of the
body when taken in relatively low
doses
 Drug effects – Observable changes in
an individual’s physiology and/or
behavior
 Sites of action – the locations where
drug molecules interact with
molecules on or in cells to affect
biochemical process
Pharmacokinetics – The process by which
drugs are absorbed, distributed within the
body, metabolized, and excreted.
 Absorption – drug is administered
and absorbed through tissues
 Distribution – drug is distributed
throughout the body and blood
 Metabolism – Drug is changed to an
inactive form by enzymes(usually in
the liver)
 Excretion – drug is excreted in urine
by kidneys
Routes of Administration
 Intravenous injection – fastest route,
injection into the vein
 Intraperitoneal injection – Injection
into the peritoneal cavity, the space
that surrounds the stomach,
intestines, liver, and other
abdominal organs
 Intramuscular injections – Injection
of substance into a large muscle(i.e.
upper arm, thigh, or buttocks)
 Subcutaneous injection –beneath
the skin
 Oral Administration – administration
of a substance into the mouth so
that it is swallowed.
 Sublingual administration – beneath
the tongue
 Inhalation – Inhaled, through the
lungs
 Topical administration – absorbed
directly through the skin
 Insufflation – snorting or sniffing,
they enter circulation through the
mucous membrane of the nasal
passages, not the lungs.
Distribution – entry of drugs into the brain
 Lipid solubility – the ability of fat-
based molecules to pass through cell
membranes.
Drug Effectiveness
 Dose-response curve – the best way
to measure the effectiveness of a
drug (individuals are given various
doses of a drug, and the effects of
the drug are plotted.)
 The most desirable drugs have a
large margin of safety
 Therapeutic index – one measure of
a drug’s margin of safety.
  Why do drugs vary in their
effectiveness? There are two
reasons: sites of action and the
affinity of a drug with its site of
action.
 Affinity – the readiness with which
two molecules join together
Effects of Repeated Administration
 Tolerance – A decrease in the
effectiveness of a drug that is
administered repeatedly
 Sensitization – an increase in the
effectiveness of a drug that is
administered repeatedly
 Withdrawal symptom - The
appearance of symptoms opposite
to those produced by a drug when
the drug is administered repeatedly
and then suddenly no longer taken.
 Physical dependence -
Compensatory changes following
repeated use of a drug that result in
withdrawal symptoms when the
drug is no longer taken.
Placebo effects
 Placebo – an inactive substance
 If a person expects that a placebo
can have a physiological or
psychological effect, then
administration of the placebo may
actually produce that effect
Sites of Drug Action
 Antagonist - A drug that opposes
or inhibits the effects of a particular
neurotransmitter on the
postsynaptic cell.
 Agonist - A drug that facilitates the
effects of a particular
neurotransmitter on the
postsynaptic cell.
 The sequence of synaptic activity
goes like this: Neurotransmitters are
synthesized and stored in synaptic
vesicles. The synaptic vesicles travel
to the presynaptic membrane,
where they become docked. When
an axon fires, voltage-dependent
calcium channels in the presynaptic
membrane open, permitting the
entry of calcium ions. The calcium
ions interact with the docking
proteins and initiate the release of
the neurotransmitters into the
synaptic cleft. Molecules of the
neurotransmitter bind with
postsynaptic receptors, causing
changes in intracellular processes or
particular ion channels to open,
which produces excitatory or
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
The effects of the neurotransmitter
are kept relatively brief by their
reuptake through transporter
molecules in the presynaptic
membrane or by their deactivation
by enzymes. In addition, the
stimulation of presynaptic
autoreceptors on the terminal
buttons regulates the synthesis and
release of the neurotransmitter.
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