LESSON 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM Sympathetic

- activated when body is in dynamic role or stress:

NERVOUS SYSTEM increased heart rate & breathing, dilation of pupil and
- connects all of your body parts and transmits signals sweating
from one part to another
- regulate body’s responses to internal and external Parasympathetic
stimuli - Restores body to normal or relax mode

2 MAJOR DIVISIONS

1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM LOBES OF THE BRAIN

- main processing center of entire nervous system of the
Parietal Lobe
body.
- Touch, movement control, manipulation of objects
- consists of brain and spinal cord
Occipital Lobe
Parts of CNS
- Visual, local orientation, shapes
A. BRAIN
Frontal Lobe
- “control center” organ located within the skull that
- Voluntary movement, planning, intellect, problem
organize and distribute information to the body
solving, abstract reasoning
Cerebrum
Temporal Lobe
- large upper part of the brain that controls activity,
- Long term memory, speech, objects, faces, hearing
thought, intelligence, memory, muscles
Cerebellum
Cerebellum
- Coordination, balance, reflex motor acts
- under cerebrum that controls posture, balance,
coordination Brain Stem
- Conduction, tract for pain, temperature, blood
Brain stem
pressure
- connects brain to spinal cord and controls automatic
functions

B. SPINAL CORD
- ~40 – 50 cm long; connects the brain and the body
- serves as the channel for signals between the brain
and the rest of the body and controls simple
musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain.

2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. SOMATIC
- activities under conscious control

Spinal Nerves
- carry motor and sensory signals

Cranial Nerves
- nerve fibers that carry information in and out of the
brain

B. AUTONOMIC
- involuntary or reflexes done without conscious will.
NEURON
- basic functional unit of the nervous system
- sends impulses from the CNS and PNS and the
effectors (muscles/glands)
Interneurons
- relay messages between other neurons
- found most often in Brain and spinal cord
LESSON 2: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE
- controls systems, maintain homeostasis (A state of
balance among all the body systems needed for the
body to survive and function correctly)

Hormones
- special chemical released into the blood
- exchanged in the liver, excreted by the kidney
Dendrites
- fine, hair-like extensions on the end of a neuron
- receive incoming stimuli

Cell Body / Soma

- control center of the neuron
- direct impulses from dendrites to the axon

Nucleus
- control center of soma
- tells soma what to do

Axon
- pathway for nerve impulse (electrical message) for the
PITUITARY GLAND
soma to the opposite end of the neuron
- small gland attached to the base of the brain
Myelin Sheath - “master gland”
- insulating layer around axon
PITUITARY HORMONES
- made up of schwann cells
Follicle Stimulating Hormones
Nodes of Ranvier
- stimulates egg maturation in the ovary and release sex
- gaps between schwann cells
hormones
- saltatory conduction (situation where the speed of an
impulse is greatly increased by the message ‘jumping’ Luteinizing Hormone
the gaps in an axon). - stimulates egg maturation and ovulation, and of the
corpus luteum surrounding the egg.

TYPES OF NEURON
Sensory Neurons
- neurons located near receptor organs (skin, eyes, ears)
- receive incoming stimuli from the environment
Motor Neurons
- located near effectors (muscles, glands)
- carry impulses from effectors to initiate a response
Thyroid-Stimulating hormone
- stimulates thyroid to release thyroxine
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
- causes adrenal gland to release cortisol
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
- stimulates synthesis of skin pigments
Growth Hormone
- Stimulates growth during infancy and puberty
- too much can cause gigantism
- too little can cause pituitary dwarfism
Antidiuretic Hormone
- Signals kidney to conserve more water
Oxytocin
- Affects childbirth, lactation, and some behaviors
ADRENAL GLAND
- 2 small glands that sit atop both kidneys
- 2 division: adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
ADRENAL CORTEX (ADRENAL MEDULLA IN SLIDES)

THYROID GLAND Glucocorticoids

- lies in the anterior neck just below the larynx
Hypothyroidism
- inadequate levels of thyroid hormones
- facial bloating, weakness, lethargy, cold intolerance,
altered mental status, oily skin and hair
Hyperthyroidism
- too much thyroid hormones
- insomnia, fatigue, tachycardia, hypertension, heat
intolerance, weight loss
THYROID HORMONES
- increase blood glucose levels and decrease immune
response.
Aldosterone
- regulates sodium content in blood
Testosterone (in both sexes)
- Adult body form (greater muscle mass), libido
ADRENAL MEDULLA (cortex in slides)
Epinephrine
- Stimulates fight or flight response
- or Adrenaline

Thyroxine
- regulates metabolism

Calcitonin TESTES
- inhibits release of calcium from the bones - controlled by pituitary hormones FSH and LH, they
manufacture:
Triiodothyronine
- released into the circulatory system and increase Testosterone
metabolic rate - promotes male growth and masculinization

OVARIES
- under the control of LH and FSH, they manufacture:
PANCREAS (ISLET CELLS)
Estrogen
Insulin
- Stimulates egg maturation
- decrease blood sugar by promoting uptake of glucose
by cells Progesterone
- released by beta cells - Prepares uterus to receive a fertilized egg

Glucagon
- increase blood sugar by stimulating breakdown of
glycogen in the liver
PINEAL GLAND
- released by alpha cells
Melatonin
*Somatostatin
- sleep cycles, reproductive cycles in many mammals
- inhibit both glucagon and insulin
- released by delta cells
GLANDS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- pituitary
- pineal
- thyroid
- parathyroid - positive and negative
- thymus - thymosin
- adrenal
- pancreas
- ovary and testis

LESSON 3: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Testes
- produce sperm
- aka testicles or gonads

Epididymis
- where sperm mature

Vas deferens
- transports mature sperm to urethra

Seminal Vesicles
- produce a sugar-rich fluid that provides energy to
sperm

Prostate Gland
- makes fluid, lubricate pathway, nourish sperm

Bulborethral Gland
- Neutralize acidity in urethra LESSON 4: DNA AND RNA
Urethra DNA
- tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of - deoxyribonucleic acid
the body - a double-stranded, nucleic acid molecule capable of
replicating and determining the inherited traits of
organisms and viruses. It is shaped like a twisted ladder
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM or a double helix
Vagina - found in the nucleus
- birth canal - made up of nucleotide (monomer to DNA): pentose
- joins cervix to the outside of the body sugar (5 – carbon), phosphate group (PO4), nitrogenous
base:
Uterus - Adenine (double ring purine) = Thymine (single ring pyrimidines)
- hollow organ that is home to a developing fetus - Cytosine (single ring pyrimidines) = Guanine (double ring purine)
Ovaries
- produces eggs and hormones

Fallopian tubes
- tunnels for egg cells to travel from the uterus

FEEDBACK MECHANISM
- process through which the level of one substance
influences the level of another
Chromosomes mRNA
- made of both DNA and protein - long stands of RNA nucleotides that are formed
complementary to one strand of DNA.
Chargaff’s Rule
- Determined that the amounts of nitrogenous bases Ribosomal RNA
were always found in proportions where A=T and C=G - associates with proteins to form ribosomes in the
cytoplasm
Erwin Chargaff
- showed the amounts of the four bases tRNA
- transfer RNA
RNA
- smaller segments of RNA nucleotides that transport
- ribonucleic acid
amino acids to the ribosome where proteins are made
- single-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar
by adding 1 at a time
ribose and has Uracil instead of Thymine. It leaves the
nucleus and directs the making of proteins. Codon
- three-base code in DNA or mRNA
- anti codon in tRNA
DNA replication - each corresponds with one amino acid
- biological process of producing two identical replicas - AUG start
of DNA from one original DNA molecule. - UAA, UAG, UGA stop

Helicase
- enzyme helps unzip and separate the commentary
strand, a replication fork is created

Primase
- This enzyme helps in the synthesis of RNA primer
complementary to the DNA template strand.
LESSON 5: MUTATIONS
DNA polymerase
- brings in new nucleotides Mutations
- changes in the nucleotide sequence of the DNA
Lagging Strand - may occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed to offspring)
- 3’ to 5’ - may occur in gametes (passed)
- creates Okazaki fragments
Chromosome Mutation
Ligase - changing in the structure of a chromosome, loss or
- glues the new DNA/okazaki fragments gain of part of a chromosome

Deletion
- a piece of a chromosome is lost
Protein Synthesis
- process of making protein Inversion
- two steps: transcription and translation - segment flips around
Transcription Duplication
- DNA is converted to an RNA molecule (mRNA or - gene sequence is repeated
messenger RNA)
Translocation
Translation - changing of location
- the mRNA is used to assemble the amino acids into a
protein chain Nondisjunction
- failure of some chromosomes to separate during
meiosis
Gene Mutation LESSON 6: EVOLUTION
- change in the nucleotide sequence
Evolution
Point Mutation - changes in a population of organisms over a period of
- change of single nucleotide time
- sickle cell disease (nucleotide substitution) hemoglobin
Fossil
Frameshift Mutation - preserved remains or imprint of ancient organisms
- addition or deletion of nucleotide - paleontologist
- found in sedimentary rocks formed when sand and silt
settle to the bottom of the water
Genetic Disorder - not all animals are fossilized
- gain or loss of chromosome material can lead to

Cri Du Chat
DETERMINING AGE OF FOSSILS
- deletion of part of the short arm chromosome 5
- high pitched cries, wide eyes, small head, mentally Relative dating
retarded - layer of the earth they are found
Down Syndrome
- extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21)
- decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical
skull, slanting eyes, mild to moderate mental
retardation.

Edward’s Syndrome
Radioactive Dating
- second most common trisomy (chromosome 18) after
- remaining radioactive isotopes the fossil contains
down syndrome
* potassium > argon (billions of years old)
- mental and motor retardation, numerous congenital
* carbon14 > nitrogen14 (5730 years old)
anomalies, clenched hands, overlapping fingers
- 90% die in infancy

Jacobsen Syndrome Comparative Anatomy

- terminal 11q deletion disorder
Homologous Structures (divergent evolution)
- normal intelligence, mild retardation, poor or
- similar structure, different function
excessive language
- human arm, cat legs
- paris-trousseau syndrome
Analogous Structure (convergent evolution)
Klinefelter’s Syndrome
- similar function, similar structure
- (xxy) nondisjunction
- men, sterile, longer arms and legs, taller Vestigial Structures
- shy and quiet, speech delay - serve no function but useful in earlier ancestors

Embryological Development
- closely related because of similar developmental
stages

Genetic Information
- amino acids
Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) Carrying Capacity
- French naturalist - maximum numbers of organisms than an environment
- theory that organisms were driven of some inner force can support.
toward evolution - loss of this is the cause of decreasing wildlife in most
- proposed Lamarckism in 1809 places in our country
- no extinction
- variation because individual change
VALUE OF SPECIES
Theory of Need
- organism change to their environment Direct economic value
- products are sources of foods, medicine, clothing,
Acquired Characteristic
shelter, and energy
- inherit the acquired traits of ancestor
Indirect economic value
Theory of Use and Disuse
- benefits produced by the organism without using or
- use it or lose it
harming them

Aesthetic Value
Charles Darwin - provide visual or artistic enjoyment
- 1835 set sail on the HMS beagle to Galapagos Island
- 1844 wrote theory on the Origin of Species
- liked and observed Finches FACTORS OF POPULATION GROWTH
- 1858, he and Wallace publish their theories on
evolution Density Dependent

Theory of Natural Selection

- natural selection = best suited
- extinction
- best suited characteristics are passed
- variation when organisms are produced
- natural disaster, sun light, human activity
Density Independent
- when a population reaches a certain number, there
won’t be enough resources for all of them

Disease and parasite

LESSON 7: BIODIVERSITY Competition of Resources
Biodiversity Predation
- range of organisms in the environment
- can be measured by numbers and types of different Emigration
species or the genetic variations between species.

Population
- total number of organisms belonging to the same
species in a particular environment

Population Density
- refers to the measurement of population per area