FERROUS ALLOYS

Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM

Ferrite α  BCC structure

Austenite   FCC structure

Cementite Fe3C

Pearlite  eutectoid. Alternating layers of ferrite and cementite.  <-> α + Fe3C

Other elements that can be found in steels: Si<0.5%, Mn<1%, P<0.05% and S<0.05%

EQUILIBROUM MICROSTRUCTURE

FERRITE:

- Alpha Fe (BCC)
- It cannot dissolve more than 0.02% C at 727º  low hardness due to low carbon
- As solid solution  dissolve extra alloying elements: Mn, Si, P, Cr, Ni…
- Hardness: 80 HV

AUSTENITE:

- Gamma Fe (FCC)
- Stable structure at high temperature.
- It can dissolve up to 2% C and other elements in solid solutions: MN, Si, P, Cr, Ni…

PEARLITE:

- Structure of eutectoid steels (0.72-0.8 % C)

- Layers mix of alpha matrix combines with Fe3C cementite.
- Hardness: 200-250 HV
- Better balance of mechanical properties.

THERMAL TREATEMENT

IDEAL SITUATION  slow cooling allowing equilibrium by diffusion.

On industrial practice TOO FAST COOLING  non equilibrium phenomena  thermal treatment
hardening  METASTABLE PHASES: higher energy state than expected for the given conditions of the
alloy (it will be able to decompose)  MARTENISTIC TRANSFORMATION.

STARTING FROM AUSTENITE T>730ºC

 Transformation involving diffusion (slow cooling)

Austenite  α Fe + Fe3C (TWO PHASES)

UNDER SLOW COOLING: pearlite

UNDER MODERATE COOLING: bainite (α ferrite + fine, small and needle like cementite precipitates). The
lower the temperature, the higher the hardness and the strength.
  Transformations without diffusion (fast cooling)
Austenite  Martensite (BCT, maximum hardness / ONE PHASE)

FAST COOLING (QUENCHING): martensite is a nonequilibrium transformation that results from a

diffusionless transformation of austenite.

- FCC austenite transforms  body centered tetragonal martensite = needles with a high-density
dislocation.
- The high distortion of the crystal lattice  enormous hardening and brittleness.

Several different thermal treatments are employed to enhance the properties of the alloys:

AUSTENTINIZATION: heating a steel over its critical temperature for transforming completely its
microstructure to austenite.

FULL ANNEALING: to obtain a soft equilibrium structure in steels. The steel is austenitized and then slow
cooled. Cooling  surface = coarse pearlite and ferrite structure, soft and ductile.

NORMALIZING: steels that have been plastically deformed (rolling) of pearlite (proeutectoid phase)
irregular grains. The grain size is controlled  more uniform and smaller average size (high toughness).
The steel is austenitized at low temperatures and cooled in air  fine grains and high toughness.

QUENCHING: to obtain martensitic steels. Involves rapidly cooling of an austenitized specimen in water,
oil, or air.

TEMPERING: from quenching, martensite is very hard and brittle  tempering to enhance the ductility
and toughness and release the internal stress of martensite. Heating below the eutectoid (annealing at
150-700ºC) allow by diffusional process to the formation of tempered martensite according to:

martensite (BCT, single phase)  tempered martensite (α + Fe3C phases)

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

In stees, depend in the kind and microstructure  they grow with C content.

- FERROTE + PEARLITE STRUCTURES obtained under slow cooling (air) correspond to a phase
diagram (strength 350-900 MPa),
- BAINITIC and/or MARTENSITIC STRUCTURES with very high mechanical properties (strength >
900 MPa) are obtained by rapid cooling and thermal treatments, Quenching + tempering.

STEELS CLASSIFICATION

- EUTECTOID COMPOSITION
 Eutectoid: 100% pearlite
 Hypoeutectoid: pearlite + ferrite
 Hypereutectoid: pearlite + cementite
- CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
 Carbon steels: Mn, Si, P, S
 Alloyed steels
 Low alloy: less than 5% of alloying element
 High alloy: stainless steels, tool steels (ceramic bonding – carbides)
- APPLICATIONS: construction, tools, stainless steels, nitriding steels, carburizing steels…
CARBON STEELS

LOW CARBON STEELS

- C content below wt% = not enough to be heat treated

- Most manufactured
- Only hardened by cold work
- Microstructure: ferrite and pearlite
- Soft, low strength, ductile and tough, easily machined, weldable and cheap.
- YS=275 MPA; TS=415-550 MPA; ε% = 25

MEDIUM CARBON STEELS

- C content 0.25-0.6%
- Higher strength but lower ductility and toughness
- Heat treatable (austenitization, quenching and tempering) for better mechanical properties.
- Equilibrium microstructure: ferrite and pearlite
- Addition of Cr, Ni and Mo  enhance quenchability and strength and toughness (ε<5%)

HIGH CARBON STEELS

- C content 0.6-1,4 %
- Higher strength and lower ductility after quenching and tempering
- Cr, V, W and Mo  wear resistant carbides (tool steels) (cutting tools)

STEELS OF PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE

LOW C WELDEABLE STRUCTURAL STEELS (C<0.25)

Wt% and hot enrolled are the most employed.

QUENCHED AND TEMEPRED STEELS (MEDIUM C) (0.25 wt% < C > 0.6 wt%)

For element where high fatigue strength and toughness are required

STAINLESS STEELS

Resistant to corrosion in many environments to what 10 wt% < Cr > 12 wt% is required.
Martensitic, ferritic (main phase), austenitic (not magnetic)

CAST IRONS

- Alloys with higher than 2 wt% C (in practice 3-4.5 wt%)

- Melt easily
- Brittle
- Best processing method is casting
- Cementite: metastable compound can be decomposed to form α-ferrite and graphite (100%
C):
Fe3C  3Fe (α) + C (graphite)
- The tendency for the graphite instead of Fe3C is regulated by composition and cooling rate.
Slower cooling rates and silicon at wt% > 1 favor graphitization.
GRAY IRON

2.5 – 4.0 wt %C and 1 – 3 wt %Si

- graphite = flakes surrounded by ferrite or pearlite matrix

- mechanical weak and brittle (graphite concentrates stress)
- work properly under compression loads
- good wear resistance and to vibrations, easy to cast and cheap

DUCTILE/NODULAR IRON

By adding magnesium or cerium  graphite forms nodules = better mechanical properties (strength)
and more ductile = similar to steel.

WHITE IRON

At low C and low SI <1 wt% and rapid cooling state.

- Most of carbon exists as cementite  brittle and extremely hard.

- Difficult to machine, very good wear resistance.

MALLEABLE IRON

When decomposing thermically  cementite = graphite rosetes  good mechanical properties and
more ductility.

LIGHT ALLOYS

Application  low weight  aviation and transport industry.

Lower density  specific properties = medium and high strength and stiffness to very low densities.

Most important families:

- Aluminum alloys (curable second phases)

- Magnesium alloys (more problems of corrosion although – lighter than Al)
- Beryllium alloys (special and unique in aerospace industry)
- Titanium alloys (high density but high strength even at high temperatures)

ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Used as structural materials alternative to steels where their lower density is advantageous

APPLICATION BASIS
Melting point: 660º
- Light weight
- Electrical and thermal conductivity Non magnetic, non toxic
- Corrosion resistance
- Deoxidant Density: 2.7
- Reflective
Crystal system: FCC
Low strength (90)  alloying 200-660 MPa
Low elastic modulus compared to steels (70MPa). Bigger sections to achieve similar stiffness than steels,
however the weight is the half but the price is double.

Good ductility, formability.

Hardenable: grain size, hard work, solid solution and precipitation hardening

NOT HEAT TREATABLES: Al-Mn (3xxx) and Al-Mn (5xxx)

Work hardenable and moderate strength in thick sections

 Al 1.2 Mn 1Mg (3004)

Annealed, O: TS=180; YS=80; ε=25%
Cold worked H18: TS=290; Y=250; ε=9%
 Al 4.5 Mg (5182)
Annealed, O: TS=290; YS=130; ε=25%
Cold worked H18: TS=400; Y=380; ε=5%

Well weldability and corrosion resistance.

HEAT TRETATABLES

 Al-Cu; Al-Cu-Mg (2xxx)

- Precipitation hardening (CuAl2)
- Natural or artificial ageing
- Similar mechanical properties to structural steels
- Good fatigue strength, limited corrosion strength

 Al-Mg-Si (6xxx)
- Precipitation hardening (Mg2Si)
- Excellent corrosion resistance
- Extradurable
- Médium strength

 Al-Zn-Mg (Cu) (7xxx)

- Percipitation hardened (MgZn2)
- Best mechanical properties
- Por corrosion resistance  protective coating
- Difficult welding

MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Lightest of structural materials

Density: 1.80 (2/3 of aluminum)

- Very bas corrosion resistance

- Good strength though limited E (45 GPa aprox)
- Crystall structure HC  hard and expensive to plastically deform
- Cold work and thermal treatement hardening

Used in aerospace applications, gigh-speed machinery and transportation and materials handing
equipment.
TITANIUM ALLOYS
Light and string material

Density: 4.50

E = 110 GPa aprox

- Superior corrosion resistance and biocompatibility

- The best specific strength of metals
- Very reactive, difficult to extract and transform  very expensive

Excellent corrosion resistance  chemical processing equipment and marine components

ZINC ALLOYS
Low melting point and low strength

Density: 7.13

- Low corrosion resistance but used as corrosion protection to steels (galvanizing)

- Forging and cast alloys available
- Easy to cast
- Low cost

SUPERALLOYS: nickel and cobalt alloys

Used for corrosion protection and for high-temperature resistance, taking advantage of their high
melting points and high strengths.

Density: 8,9

SUPERALLOYS: a group of nickel, al cobalt-based alloys that have excellent properties:

- Excellent heat resistance

- Outstanding oxidation (high temperature) resistance
- Exceptional creep resistance
- Very expensive