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Statistics

Hadiqa Asif

Roll # 14 Evening

BS (Hons) 2020-2024

Semester VI

Assignment

Articles on Different tests of SPSS

Mam Humaira Naz

August 13, 2023

Centre for Clinical Psychology

University of the Punjab
Lahore
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Articles on tests of SPSS

Independent Samples T-Test

Study Background

Ekpoh (2009) examined the level of climate change awareness among secondary school

teachers in Calabar Municipality. Climate change is a significant environmental issue causing

long-term changes in weather patterns, causing severe consequences. In Nigeria, it affects

citizens, environment, natural resources, and economy. Global concern calls for awareness and

adaptation strategies. Teachers play a crucial role in promoting climate change awareness and

understanding, and assessing their climate change awareness in Calabar Municipality is essential

for effective education.

To direct the investigation, three research hypotheses were put out.

Hypothesis 1

The level of climate change awareness among secondary school teachers is not

significantly high. Population t-test (test of one sample or single mean) is used to analyze the

data obtained.

Table 1: Population t-test (test of one sample mean) analysis of the level of climate

change awareness among secondary school teachers

Expected Mean Observed Mean

Variables µ x SD t

Teachers’ level

of Climate 30 29.04 7.00 -1.920

change
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The outcome shown in Table 1 indicates that, at 0.05 level of significance and 199 degrees of

freedom, the computed t-value of -1.920 is determined to be lower than the crucial t-value of

1.972. As a consequence, the alternative hypothesis is disproved and the null hypothesis is

accepted. This indicates that secondary school teachers in the research region do not have

significantly high levels of awareness of climate change. There is often little understanding about

climate change among Calabar's secondary school instructors. This finding supports the notion

that the observed mean knowledge of climate change is lower than the anticipated mean.

Additionally, using a population t-test, a statistical comparison between the observed mean

(x=29.04) and the anticipated mean value of 30.00 provides

Hypothesis 2

There is no significant difference between male and female teachers in their level of

climate change awareness. Independent t-test statistical analysis is used to compare the mean

scores of male and female teachers.

Variables N x SD t

Male 100 33.38 5.94

Female 100 24.7 5.01 11.128*

*Significant at 0.05; df = 198; critical t-value = 1.972

The result presented in Table 2 shows that the at 0.05 level of significance with 198 degrees of

freedom, the computed t-value of 11.128 is determined to be greater than the crucial t-value of

1.972. As a result, the alternative hypothesis is kept, and the null hypothesis is rejected. This

indicates that there is a large gap in the study region in the level of climate change knowledge

among male and female teachers. In addition, Table 2's result shows that male instructors' mean

scores (x=33.38) are higher than female teachers' mean scores (x=24.70). An independent t-test
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statistical comparison of the mean scores results in a statistically significant positive result. This

suggests that men instructors are more likely than female teachers to be aware of climate change

on a mean basis.

Hypothesis 3

Teachers' access to sources of information on climate change is not significantly high.

Population t-test (test of one sample mean) is used to analyze data obtained.

Expected Mean Observed Mean

Variables µ x SD t

Teachers’ access

to sources of
30 29.32 6.79 -1.388
information on

climate change

At 0.05, it is not significant; df=199, crucial t-value = 1.972

The outcome shown in Table 3 demonstrates that, at the 0.05 level of significance and

199 degrees of freedom, the computed t-value of -1.388 is discovered to be lower than the crucial

t-value of 1.972. As a result, the alternative hypothesis is disproved and the null hypothesis is

accepted. This indicates that the study area's instructors have very limited access to sources of

information on climate change. This finding further suggests that access to sources of knowledge

on climate change is less common than the projected average of 30.00, which is what was seen.

The population ttest statistical comparison between the observed mean value (x = 29.32) and the

anticipated mean value of 30.00 resulted in a negative t-value.

Method
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A sample of 200 secondary school teachers were given the "Climate Change Awareness

Questionnaire (CCAQ)," a self-created survey. The data were examined using the population t-

test and independent t-test.

Results

Findings showed that instructors usually had low levels of understanding of climate

change, and that this awareness differed by sex. Also, there were few resources available to

schools for learning about climate change. consequences for management efficacy were spoken

about.

Article 2

Paired T-Test

Study Background

Stephanie (2008) aimed at introducing hypothesis testing, focusing on the paired t-test. It

will give an illustration of how the paired t-test is used in statistical analyses. The values that are

computed using the example’s data and specific formulae are provided. This essay was initially

turned in as part of the mandatory senior Colloquium presentation for Xavier’s mathematics

majors. It is necessary to do research in mathematics or statistics and present your findings to the

mathematics department’s teachers, staff, and other students.

Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is used to make an inference about a population that’s under study.

The inference is based on the parameter(s) for the statistic, usually the sample mean and standard

deviation. The purpose of the test is to determine whether a person’s physical condition improves

after jogging.

Method
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An investigator obtains maximal VO2 before subjects start jogging and again six months

later. The first sample contains the values of VO2 that were recorded for each participant before

they started jogging. The second sample contains the values of VO2 recorded after jogging.

Results

Because H 0 (null hypothesis) was rejected, we can conclude that jogging does improve a

person’s physical condition. This scholarly note has presented a brief overview of hypothesis

testing and focused on understanding the paired t-test.

The study suggests parallel group designs are not suitable for evaluating ethanol disposition and

bio availability due to significant between-subject variation in AUC, V, and C(0). This variation

is likely due to differences in body composition and fat/lean tissue ratios. The Cmax value was

inversely related to tmax, suggesting slow alcohol absorption.

( In this table, Diffsqrd represe (d d)2.)

Article 3
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1-Way Between Subject ANOVA & 1-Way Within Subject ANOVA

Study Background

Jones and Jonsson (1994) investigated whether certain drugs used to suppress the

production of gastric acid (cimetidine, ranitidine, and omeprazole) could modify the

pharmacokinetics of ethanol. The lack of any treatment effects and the fact that the same dose of

ethanol (0.8 g kg-) was administered to the same individual on four occasions, allowed us to

calculate the magnitude of between-subject and within-subject variation in the pharmacokinetics

of ethanol.

Hypothesis

There is no specific hypothesis mentioned in this study. We can say that the influence of

various treatments can help ethanol to disappear from the blood.

Method

Twelve healthy male volunteers gave written informed consent to participate in these

experiments. Their mean age was 27.3 years (SD. 4.8), mean body weight was 75.2 kg (SD. 3.9),

and mean height was 181 cm (SD. 4.1). All subjects were accustomed to moderate drinking, and

some were smokers, but they were not allowed to smoke during the experiments.

The components of variation between and within subjects were calculated using model II

(random effects) one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Results

The study found that between-subject variance varied from 10% to 17%, with an average

of 14%. None of the earlier statistical techniques were used to separate the variation into within-

and between-subject components. The time to attain C-max varied more between subjects than

within subjects, and F-ratios showed greater variance between subjects than within subjects.
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Components of variation Variance ratios

Parameter Mean ± s.d.'
SDb (%)2 SDw (%)3 (F)

Cmax (mg dlFl) 103 ± 16 14.13 (75%) 8.18 (25%) 12.9

ko (mg dl-' h-') 14.2 ± 1.5 0.98 (42%) 1.14 (58%) 3.93

C(0) (mg dl-1) 117 ± 9 8.12 (75%) 4.74 (25%) 12.7

Timeo (h) 8.3 ± 0.8 0.68 (66%) 0.484 (34%) 8.89

Elimination rate
97.2 ± 10.1 8.41 (68%) 5.82 (32%) 9.35
(mg kg-' h-1)

V (1 kg-') 0.69 ± 0.05 0.046 (73%) 0.028 (27%) 11.89

C(4 h) (mg dl-1) 63 ± 8 7.46 (78%) 3.99 (22%) 14.96

AUC (mg dl-F h) 393 ± 52 50.5 (89%) 18.1 (11%) 32.80

s.d. based on all 48 individual measurements and reflecting between- and within-subject

variability. SDb is the standard deviation between subjects if an infinite number of tests had been

made on each. SDW is the standard deviation within subjects and applies to a single

measurement for a new subject from the same population. F ratios for 11 and 36 degrees of

freedom; Fp = 0.05 = 2.07; Fp = 0001 = 3.86. The inter-individual variability was significantly

greater than intra-individual variability for all parameters.

Our results speak against the use of parallel group designs when the disposition of

ethanol and its bioavailability are of interest. This follows from the larger contribution of

between-subject variation to total variation with respect to AUC, V, and C(0). The large

between-subject variation in these parameters (73-89%) is probably explained by differences in

body composition. We administered alcohol per kg of body weight and individual differences in

the ratio of fat/lean tissue may have influenced the between-subject variation. Most (75%) of the

total variation in Cmax was attributed to inter-individual differences, and this probably reflects
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variation in stomach emptying times. The value of Cmax was inversely related to tmax (r = -

0.54, P < 0.001) which indicates that slow absorbers of alcohol reached lower peak BAC. With

reference to the rate of disposal of ethanol, as reflected in timeo and the elimination rate (mg kg-'

h-1), about two-thirds of the total variance (66% and 68%, respectively) arose from variation

between subjects. This conflicts with the disappearance rate of ethanol from blood (ko) where

42% and 58% of total variation was associated with inter- and intra-individual variation,

respectively. However, the slope of the rectilinear elimination phase (ko), depends not only on

the activity of alcohol metabolizing enzymes but also on the volume of distribution of ethanol.

The smaller the value of V the steeper the slope of the elimination phase (ko).

Conclusion

We conclude that, for studies aimed at comparing the influence of various treatments on

the disappearance rate of ethanol from blood, a parallel group design may prove as effective as a

crossover design.
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References

Ekpoh, U.I. & Ekpoh, I.J. (2009). Assessing the Level of Climate Change Awareness among

Secondary School Teachers in Calabar Municipality, Nigeria: Implication for

Management Effectiveness. Centre for Promoting Ideas, USA. Calabar: St. Paul

publishing co.

Jones, A.W. & Jonsson, K.A. (1994). Between-subject and within-subject variations in the

pharmacokinetics of ethanol. Departments of Alcohol Toxicology and Internal Medicine,

University Hospital, Linkoping, Sweden. Br J clin Pharmac, 37, 427-431.

Wilkerson, S. (2008). Application of the Paired t-test, XULAneXUS: Vol. 5 : Iss. 1 , Article 7.

https://digitalcommons.xula.edu/xulanexus/vol5/iss1/7.