SET THEORY REVIEWER (DISCRETE MATHEMATICS)

• Set - a well-defined collection of objects of any kind.

• Sets are denoted by capital letters A, B, C …, X, Y, Z.
• Elements of a set are represented by lower case letters.
o x∈A
▪ “x belongs to A”
▪ “x is in A”
▪ “x is an element of A”
o x∉A
▪ “x does not belong to A”
▪ “x is not in A”
▪ “x is not an element of A”
• METHODS OF DESCRIBING MEMBERS OF A SET:
o Roster Method (Listing) – enclosing the list by a pair of braces.
▪ A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
▪ B = {A, E, I, O, U}
o Rule Method - giving a property which distinguishes members of set from objects in the set.
▪ A = {𝑎 | 𝑎 is a counting number less than 6}
▪ B = {𝑏 | 𝑏 is the vowels in the English alphabet}
• Finite sets – contains a distinct number of elements.
• Infinite sets – contains an infinite number of elements.
• Subset (⊆) – a set that is part of another set (including a set of itself) (A ⊆ B IFF every element of A is in
B)
o If: A = {1, 3, 5} B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} C = {1, 2, 3, 4} D = {3, 1, 5}
o Then: A ⊆ B, C ⊆ B, A ⊆ D
• Proper subset (⊂) – a set that is part of another set (not including a set of itself) (A ⊂ B IFF every
element of A is in B but there is at least one element of B that is not in A.)
o If: A = {1, 3, 5} B = {1, 2, 3, 5}
o Then: A ⊂ B
• Equal sets - two sets A and B are equal if and only if every element of A is in B and every element of B is
in A and is denoted A = B. (A = B IFF A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A)
o A = {1, 2, 3, 6} B = the set of positive divisors of 6
C = {3, 1, 6, 2} D = {1, 2, 2, 3, 6, 6, 6}
o Then A, B, C, and D are all equal sets.
• Empty sets - denoted by 𝝓, a set which contains nothing.
o A = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a person taller than 10 feet} = ∅
o B = {𝑥 | 𝑥 2 = 4, x is odd} = ∅
• Universal set (U) - The set of all elements under consideration is called the Universal Set. The Universal
Set is usually denoted by U.
• Venn diagram - a graphical representation of sets by regions of plane.
• SET OPERATIONS
o Union ( ∪ ) - Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. The union of sets A and B is the set of
all elements in U that belong to A or to B or to both, and is denoted A ∪ B. Symbolically: A ∪ B =
{x ∈ U | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

o Intersection ( ∩ ) - Let A and B subsets of a universal set U. The intersection of sets A and B is
the set of all elements in U that belong to both A and B and is denoted A ∩ B. Symbolically: A ∩ B
= {x ∈ U | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

o Set difference - Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. The difference of “A and B” is the set
of all elements in U that belong to A but not to B, and is denoted A – B or A \ B. Symbolically: A –
B = {x ∈ U | x ∈ A and x ∉ B}

o Complement - Let A be a subset of universal set U. The complement of A is the set of all elements
̅ , 𝐀′ or 𝑨𝑪 . Symbolically: 𝑨𝑪 = {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}
in U that do not belong to A, and is denoted 𝐀

o NOTABLE EXAMPLES:
▪ A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B
▪ A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B
▪ If A ∩ B = ∅, then A & B are called disjoint sets.
▪ A – B ≠ B – A: set difference is not commutative.
▪ A–B⊆A
▪ A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are mutually disjoint sets.
 ▪ 𝐴𝐶 = U – A
▪ A ∩ 𝐴𝐶 = ∅ AND A ∪ 𝐴𝐶 = U
• Truth table - mathematical table used in connection with Boolean algebra and Boolean functions. It defines
the possible truth values of the set equations.

• Cartesian Product of Two Sets - Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A ×
B (read as “A cross B”) is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏), where 𝑎 is in A and 𝑏 is in B. A × B = {(𝑎, 𝑏)|
𝑎 ∈ A and 𝑏 ∈ B} (A × B has m × n elements.)
o A = {1,2} and B = {2,3}
o 𝐴 𝑥 𝐵 = {(1,2), (1,3), (2,2), (2,3)}
o 𝐵 𝑥 𝐵 = {(2,2), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3)}
• Power set - The power set of set A is the set of all subsets of A, denoted P(a). If a has n elements, then
p(a) has 2n elements.
o A = {1,2} and B = {2,3}
o Then 𝑃(𝐴) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1,2}}
o 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}}
• LAWS
o Idempotent Laws
▪ A∪𝐴 =𝐴
▪ A∩𝐴 =𝐴
o Commutative Laws
▪ A∪𝐵 =B∪𝐴
▪ A∩𝐵 =B∩𝐴
o Associative Laws
▪ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶
▪ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶
o Distributive Laws
▪ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
▪ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
o De morgan’s Laws
▪ (A ∪ 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∩ 𝐵 𝐶
▪ (A ∩ 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∪ 𝐵 𝐶
o Double Complement Law Complement laws
𝑐 𝐶
o A.) (𝐴 ) = 𝐴 a.) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑈 b.) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐶 = ∅
o Identity Laws
o A.) 𝐴 ∪ ∅ = 𝐴 C.) 𝐴 ∩ ∅ ≡ ∅
o B.) 𝐴 ∪ 𝑈 = 𝑈 D.) 𝐴 ∩ 𝑈 ≡ 𝐴
 o Alternative Representation of Set Difference
o A.) 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 𝐶
o Absorption Laws
o A.) 𝐴 ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝐴 B.) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝐴

LOGIC

• PROPOSITION

• A proposition is any simple declarative statement that is either true or false, yes or no, 1 or 0 but not
both. We shall assign to each statement exactly one of two values – true (symbolized by “t”), or false
(symbolized by “f ”).

• LOGICAL CONNECTORS

• TRUTH TABLE

• a case table in which “t” represents true and “f ” represents false that provides definition of any
propositional logic.

• R = 2n

• Tautology – a compound proposition that is true for all possible truth value of its propositional variables.

• Contradiction – a compound proposition that is false for all possible truth values of its propositional
variables.

• Contingency – a compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

• CONDITIONALS

• Conditional: 𝑃 → 𝑄 • Inverse: ~𝑃 → ~𝑄

• Converse: 𝑄 → 𝑃 • Contrapositive of ~𝑄 → ~𝑃

• RULES OF REPLACEMENT

1. Idempotence 8. Absorption
a. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑃 ≡ 𝑃 a. 𝑃 ∧ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ≡ 𝑃
b. 𝑃 ∨ 𝑃 ≡ 𝑃 b. 𝑃 ∨ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ≡ 𝑃
2. Commutativity 9. Exportation
a. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 ≡ 𝑄 ∧ 𝑃 a. (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) → 𝑅 ≡ 𝑃 → (𝑄 → 𝑅)
 b. 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 ≡ 𝑄 ∨ 𝑃 10. Equivalence
3. Associative a. 𝑃 ↔ Q ≡ (𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧ (𝑄 → 𝑃)
a. 𝑃 ∧ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑅) ≡ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ∧ 𝑅 11. Contrapositive
b. 𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∨ 𝑅) ≡ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∨ 𝑅 a. 𝑃 → 𝑄 ≡ ~𝑄 → ~𝑃
4. Distributivity 12. Identity
a. 𝑃 ∧ (𝑄 ∨ 𝑅) ≡ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ∨ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑅) a. 𝑃 ∨ 𝑡 ≡ 𝑡
b. 𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑅) ≡ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∧ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑅) b. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑡 ≡ 𝑃
5. Double Negation c. 𝑃 ∨ 𝑓 ≡ 𝑃
a. ~(~𝑃) ≡ 𝑃 d. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑓 ≡ 𝑓
6. Implication e. 𝑃 ∨ ~𝑃 ≡ 𝑡
a. 𝑃 → 𝑄 ≡ ~𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 f. 𝑃 ∧ ~𝑃 ≡ 𝑓
7. De Morgan’s Law
a. ~(𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ≡ ~𝑃 ∧ ~𝑄
b. ~(𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ≡ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑄

• RULES OF INFERENCE

7. Disjunctive Syllogism
1. Addition a. 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄
a. 𝑃 ~𝑃
∴𝑃∨𝑄 ∴𝑄
2. Simplification 8. Constructive Dilemma
a. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 a. 𝑃 → 𝑄
∴𝑄 𝑅→𝑆
b. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 𝑃∨𝑅
∴𝑃 ∴𝑄∨𝑆
3. Conjunction 9. Destructive Dilemma
a. 𝑃 a. 𝑃 → 𝑄
𝑄 𝑅→𝑆
∴𝑃∧𝑄 ~𝑄 ∨ ~𝑆
4. Modus Ponens ∴ ~𝑃 ∨ ~𝑅
a. 𝑃 → 𝑄 10. Equivalence
𝑃 a. 𝑃 ↔ Q
∴𝑄 𝑃
5. Modus Tollens ∴𝑄
a. 𝑃 → 𝑄 b. 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄
~𝑄 𝑄
∴ ~𝑃 ∴𝑃
6. Hypothetical Syllogism 11. Absorption
a. 𝑃 → 𝑄 a. 𝑃 → 𝑄
𝑄→𝑅 ∴ 𝑃 → (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄)
∴𝑃→𝑅
 CONDITIONAL PROOF
𝑃1 𝑃1
𝑃2 𝑃2
𝑃3 𝑃3
⋮ ⋮
𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑛
𝑅
∴𝑅→𝐶
∴𝐶
INDIRECT PROOF
𝑃1 𝑃1
𝑃2 𝑃2
𝑃3 𝑃3
⋮ ⋮
𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑛
¬𝑄
∴𝑄
∴𝑓

• ORDERED PAIR – (A, B) • ORDERED N-TUPLE – (a1, a2, …, an)

• BINARY RELATION
• 𝑅 ⊆ (𝐴 × 𝐵) when (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅
• 𝑎𝑅𝑏
• DOMAIN OF A RELATION • RANGE OF A RELATION
• DOM(R)={𝑎 𝜖 𝐴 | (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝜖 𝑅} • RAN(R)={𝑏 𝜖 𝐵 | (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝜖 𝑅}
• RELATION ON A SET
• 𝑅 ⊆ (𝐴 × 𝐴)
• ARROW DIAGRAM • DIRECTED GRAPH

• MATRIX
• INVERSE OF A RELATION

• R−1 = {(b, a) ∈ B×A | (a, b) ∈ R}

• ARROW DIAGRAM (INVERSE) • MATRIX (INVERSE) - changing

rows by columns and columns by
rows

• COMPLEMENTRY RELATION
• 𝑅̅ = (A×B) - R = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ (A×B)| (𝑎, 𝑏) ∉R}
• COMPOSITE RELATION
• If 𝑅 ⊆ (𝐴 × 𝐵) and 𝑆 ⊆ (𝐵 × 𝐶), then S𝑜𝑅 is the relation from A to C, consisting of ordered
pairs (𝑎, 𝑐).
• MATRIX (COMPOSITE)
• 𝑀𝑆𝑜𝑅 = 𝑀𝑅 ⋅ 𝑀𝑆
BOOLEAN ADDITION BOOLEAN MULTIPLICATION

1+1=1 1x1=1
1+0=1 1x0=0
0+0=0 0x0=0

• TYPES OF RELATION
Directed Graph
Matrix

Reflexive
a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R or aRa

Matrix
Symmetric Directed Graph
a, b ∈ A, if (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a)
∈R

If aRb, then bRa.

Transitive
a, b, c ∈ A, if (a, b) ∈R and (b, c) Directed Graph
∈R then (a, c) ∈R.
 if 𝑎𝑅𝑏 and 𝑏𝑅𝑐 then 𝑎𝑅𝑐.

Matrix
Irreflexive Directed Graph
All zero on the diagonal of the
a∈A, (a,a)∉R No loops
matrix.
Directed Graph Matrix
Antisymmetric
a, b ∈A if (a,b) ∈R and (b,a) ∈R
then a = b.

• Partial Ordered Relation - R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.

• Partial Ordered Set (POSET) - The set A together with a partial ordering R.
• POSET(R) = (set of elements, POSET operation)
• Hasse Diagram - a diagram which is used to describe partial order relation associated with the set.

• FINITE STATE MACHINES - Defined by a list of states, its initial state and the conditions for each
transitions.
• Sequential Process - starts in an initial state and in response to a sequence of states and generates a
sequence of output.
• State Table - consists of three sections labelled present state, next state and output.

• State diagram - a state is represented by a circle, and the transition between states is indicated by directed
lines (or arcs) connecting the circles. An example of a state diagram is shown.
 • Mealy State Machines - a state diagram in which output are function of both states and input.

• Moore State Machines - a state diagram in which the output is function of the state.

COMBINATRONICS - the mathematics of counting and arranging objects. Counting of objects with certain properties
(enumeration) is required to solve many different types of problem.

Counting is used to:

o Determine number of ordered or unordered arrangement of objects.
o Generate all the arrangements of a specified kind which is important in computer simulations.
o Compute probabilities of events.
• SUM RULE - If one event can occur in N1 ways, a second event can occur in N2 (different) ways, then the total
number of ways in which exactly one of the events (i.e., first or second) can occur is N1 + N2.
o Suppose there are 7 different optional courses in Computer Science and 3 different optional courses
in Mathematics. Then there are 7 + 3 = 10 choices for a student who wants to take one optional
course.
• PRODUCT RULE - If one event can occur in N1 ways and if for each of these N1 ways, a second event can
occur in N2 ways, then the total number of ways in which both events occur is N1 · N2.
o Suppose there are 7 different optional courses in Computer Science and 3 different optional courses
in Mathematics. A student who wants to take one optional course of each subject, there are 7 × 3 =
21 choices.

• FACTORIAL OF A POSITIVE INTEGER

o 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
o 0! = 1

• COUNTING FORMULAS - From a given set of 𝑛 distinct elements, one can choose 𝑘 elements in
different ways. The number of selections of elements varies according as:

o (𝑖) elements may or may not be repeated.

o (𝑖𝑖) the order of elements may or may not matter.

• k-sample - Suppose there are 𝑛 distinct elements and we draw a k-sample from it. The first element of the k-sample
can be drawn in 𝑛 ways. Since, repetition of elements is allowed, so the second element can also be drawn in n ways.
Similarly each of third, fourth, …, k-th element can be drawn in n ways.

Hence, by product rule, the total number of ways in which a k-sample can be drawn from 𝑛 distinct
elements is

o 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ … ⋅ 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑘 (𝑘 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠)
• k – permutation - a set of 𝑛 elements is a selection of 𝑘 elements taken from the set of 𝑛 elements such that the
order of elements matters but repetition of the elements is not allowed. The number of k-permutations of a set of 𝑛
elements is denoted 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑘) or 𝑛𝑃𝑟.

Suppose a set of 𝑛 elements is given. Formation of a k-permutation means that we have an ordered
selection of 𝑘 elements out of 𝑛, where elements cannot be repeated.
Hence, the number of ways to form a k-permutation is
𝒏!
o 𝑷(𝒏, 𝒌) = (𝒏−𝒌)!

• k – combination - a set of 𝑛 elements is a choice of 𝑘 elements taken from the set of 𝑛 elements such that the
order of the elements does not matter and elements can’t be repeated. The symbol 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑘) denotes the number of k-
combinations that can be chosen from a set of n elements. K-combinations are also written 𝑛 𝐶𝑘 or (𝑛𝑘).

o 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑘) = 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑘) · 𝑘!
𝑛!
o 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑘) = (𝑛−𝑘)!𝑘!

• k – selection - of a set of n elements is a choice of k elements taken from a set of n elements such that the order
of elements does not matter, and elements can be repeated.

o The number of k-selections that can be selected from a set of n elements is 𝐶(𝑛 + 𝑘 − 1, 𝑘).

• Unordered partition - of a finite set S is a collection [𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑘 ] of disjoint (nonempty) subsets of S

(called cells) whose union is S.
• The partition is ordered if the order of the cells in the list counts.
o Let 𝑆 = {1, 2, 3, … , 7}
▪ The collections
• 𝑃1 = [{1,2}, {3,4,5}, {6,7}]
• 𝑃2 = [{6,7}, {3,4,5}, {1,2}]
▪ determines same partition of S but are distinct ordered partitions
• THEOREM - Let S contain n elements and let 𝑛1, 𝑛2, … , 𝑛𝑘 be positive integers with 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ +
𝑛𝑘 = 𝑛. Then there exist
𝑛!
o 𝑛1 !𝑛2 !𝑛3 !…𝑛𝑘 !
• Different ordered partitions of S of the form [𝐴1, 𝐴2, … , 𝐴𝑘], where
A1 contains n1 elements.
A2 contains n2 elements.
…
 Ak contains nk elements
Remark: To find the number of unordered partitions, we have to count the ordered partitions and then
divide it by suitable number to erase the order in partitions.

PERMUTATIONS WITH REPETITIONS

• The number of permutations of n elements of which 𝑛1 are alike, 𝑛2 are alike, … , 𝑛𝑘 are alike is
𝑛!
o 𝑛1 !𝑛2 !𝑛3 !…𝑛𝑘 !
𝑛!
Remark: The number 𝑛 Is often called a multinomial coefficient.
1 !𝑛2 !𝑛3 !…𝑛𝑘 !