SHEET METAL WORKING

1. Introduction
Sheet metal working is generally associated with press machines and press working. Press working is chipless
manufacturing process by which various components are produced from sheet metal. Press working is also called
as cold stamping. Press machine consist of a frame which supports a ram and bed, and a mechanism source for
operating the ram. The ram is equipped with punch and die block which is attached to the bed. During the
operation, punch moves downwards and into the die block and stamping is produced. The punch and die block
assembly is called die or die-set.
Press machines are preferred for mass production of similar components, because for each component separate
tool is required and cost of every press tool is very high as compared to the cost of other cutting tools. Press
components are used in automobile, aircraft, electrical, electronic etc industries. All the press operations are
carried out at room temperature.
Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms used in
metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Countless everyday objects are
constructed of the material.
Thicknesses can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces
thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate. The most common range of thickness processed by sheet metal
working is 0.4 mm to 6 mm. For the thickness of the plate stock greater than 6 mm, operations are usually
performed as cold working.
The raw material for sheet metal manufacturing process is the output of the rolling process. If the sheets are thin
and very long, they may be in the form of rolls. Therefore the first step in any sheet metal process is to cut the
correct shape and sized ‘blank’ from larger sheet.
The common advantages of parts made out of sheet metal are
i. High strength
ii. Good dimensional accuracy
iii. Good surface finish
iv. Relatively low cost
v. Economic mass production for large quantities

2. Sheet metal forming processes

Sheet metal processes can be broken down into two major classifications and one minor classification
 Shearing processes - Processes which apply shearing forces to cut, fracture, or separate the material.
 Forming processes - Processes which cause the metal to undergo desired shape changes without failure,
excessive thinning, or cracking. This includes bending and stretching.
 Finishing processes - Processes which are used to improve the final surface characteristics.

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2.1 Shearing Processes
1. Punching: shearing process using a die and punch where the interior portion of the sheared sheet is to be
discarded.
2. Blanking: shearing process using a die and punch where the exterior portion of the shearing operation is to
be discarded.
3. Perforating: punching a number of holes in a sheet
4. Parting: shearing the sheet into two or more pieces
5. Notching: removing pieces from the edges
6. Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material

[Fig.1Shearing Operations: Punching, Blanking and Perforating]

2.2 Forming Processes
 Bending: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change by bending
without failure. Ref fig.2 & 2a

[Fig.2 Common Die-Bending Operations]

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 Stretching: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change by stretching
without failure. Ref fig.3

[Fig. 2a Various bending operations]

 Drawing: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change by drawing
without failure. Ref fig.4
 Roll forming: Roll forming is a process by which a metal strip is progressively bent as it passes through a
series of forming rolls. Ref fig.5

[Fig. 3 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process]

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 [Fig. 4 Schematic of the Drawing process]

Fig.5 Eight-roll sequence for the roll forming of a box channel

3. Sheet metal cutting processes
- Shearing- Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two edges. Typically it is used to
separate large sheets. (Ref. Fig. 6)

[Fig.6 Shearing operation]

Sheet metal cutting can be explained as below. Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges is illustrated in
figure 7.
1. Just before the punch contacts work
2. Punch begins to push into work, causing plastic deformation

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 3. Punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a smooth cut surface and
4. Fracture is initiated at the opposing cutting edges which separates the sheet

[Fig. 7 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges]

- Blanking- Sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a blank) from surrounding i.e.to cut part perimeters
out of sheet metal
- Punching- to make holes in sheet metal. That is sheet metal cutting operation where the cut piece is scrap.

[Fig.8 Blanking and punching operation]

3.1 Principle of sheet metal working and piercing tools
The product of a punch and die cutting operation is partially finished or semi-finished part or scrap. The process of
making hole is called piercing and it produces a scrap slug. If the produced blank is useful, it is called blanking. Cutting
of metal strip takes place due to the shearing in blanking and piercing operations. The cutting operation of metal strip
takes place due to plastic deformation, shear and break.

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Plastic deformation
As the punch descends, it touches the workpiece. The downward movement of punch exerts a force on the workpiece
material. Plastic deformation starts as soon as the material exceeds elastic deformation. The combination of elastic and
elastic deformation results in upper radius band on the scrap strip and a lower radius band on the work piece.
Shear
The cutting of strip material is known is shearing. The principle of sheet metal working is shown in figure 9 (a) and (b).
The stresses start to develop at this point. If the clearance between the die and punch is correct, the crack starting
from the edges of punch and die meet, whereas the cracks do not meet up if the clearance is slightly more or less.
Hence, shearing action does not take place.

[Fig. 9 (a) Principle of sheet metal working]

[Fig. 9 (b) Principle of sheet metal working]

4. Equipments for press operations

Basic sheet forming operations involve a press, punch, or ram and a set of dies.

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4.1 Press
 Mechanical Press - The ram is actuated using a flywheel. Stroke motion is not uniform. (Ref fig.10)
 Hydraulic Press - Longer strokes than mechanical presses, and develop full force throughout the stroke.
Stroke motion is of uniform speed, especially adapted to deep drawing operations. (Ref fig. 11)

[Fig. 10 Mechanical Press]

[Fig.11 Hydraulic Press]

4.2 Types of press
Press machines are broadly classified into the following groups.
1. According to the power source
(a) Manually operated – Hand press or fly press

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Hand press is the simplest form of all the presses and it is generally hand operated. It is basically used for rough work
like hole punching and bending. Now a day, it is rarely used in industries.
(b) Power press – Hydraulic and mechanical press
2. According to the type and design of the frame
(a) Inclinable frame
It is mostly used in the industry and can be tilted in any position, as per the requirement and locked
correspondingly.
(b) Group frame
In this, frame is an integral part of the base and cannot be tilted. It is more rigid and stable, hence capable of
accommodating larger dies.
(c) Straight side frame
These type of frames are preferred in large presses having larger bed area and high tonnage capacity. Due to
straight frame, these type of presses have greater rigidity and enable longer stroke.
It consists of a vertical frame, on which a cylindrical post is fitted which is called horn. Horn is used for die support
and tabular work.
(e) Adjustable bed type press
It carries a knee type bed hence also called as knee press. This knee or bed can be adjusted at a desired height by
moving it up or down with the help of screw provided below it.
3. According to the actions (number of rams)
a) Single action (Single ram)
b) Double action (Two rams)
c) Triple action (Three rams)
4. According to the ram driving mechanism
(a) Crank press
It consists of a crankshaft driven by a flywheel. The rotary motion of crankshaft is converted into corresponding
motion of the ram with the help of connecting rod.
(b) Eccentric press
It carries an eccentric drive mechanism for its ram. As the eccentric shaft rotates, the offset between the eccentric
centre and centre of rotation of the shaft provides the required movement.
(c) Toggle press
It is used only on double or triple action presses for driving the outer ram. It is used on large draw dies.
(d) Knuckle press
The press carries a knuckle joint mechanism for driving. The main advantage of this type of drive is that, instead of
crankshaft the back thrust from the dies acts on the crown. It is generally used for heavier jobs which require
higher intensity of blow.

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(e) Rack and pinion press
When long stroke of ram is required, rack and pinion drive is used. These presses are now a days rarely used
(f) Hydraulic press
It provides longer stroke and intensity of pressure can be adjusted as per the requirement. It consists of a double
acting cylinder and piston. These presses require greater maintenance than other presses.
5. According to the number of drive gears
a) Single drive presses
b) Twin drive presses
c) Quadruple presses
6. According to the number of crankshafts
a) Single crank
b) Double crank
7. According to the power transmitted method
(a) Direct drive press
In this, the power is transmitted from the motor t the crankshaft through a gear pair. It is generally used in light
presses.
(b) Non geared or flywheel driven press
Power is transmitted from the motor to crankshaft through ‘V’ belts. This drive is used for light presses for
providing quicker but short strokes.
(c) Single drive gear press
In this drive also, power is transmitted with the help of ‘V’ belt. It is used for heavier presses with longer stroke.
(d) Double geared drive press
This drive is used for longer strokes. It provides slowest and direct drive faster speed of ram movement.
4.3 Fundamentals of press operation
The force by which press ram is able to exert safely is called tonnage of the press. Press slides exert a force which is
greater than the rated tonnage because of built-in safety factor. The tonnage of hydraulic press is equal to the product
of the piston area and oil pressure in cylinder. The tonnage is varied by changing the oil pressure. Tonnage of
mechanical press is equal to the size of bearings for the crankshaft or eccentric. The tonnage of mechanical press is
approximately equal to the product of shear stress of the crank shaft material and area of crankshaft bearings. The
tonnage of mechanical press is the maximum when the slide is near to the bottom of the stroke.
Stroke
Reciprocating motion of a press slide is called the stroke. Stroke is expressed as the number of inches between terminal
points of the motion. The stroke is constant for mechanical press while it is adjustable for hydraulic press.
Shut height

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The distance from the top of the bed to the bottom of the slide with the stroke down and the adjustment up is called
shut height.
Die space
Die space is the area available for mounting dies in the press.
4.4 Specifications of press
Press is generally designated with the help of following as specification.
1) Press stroke- The distance travelled by the ram from top to bottom position
2) Die space- The available surface for mounting the die and punch components in the press
3) Press tonnage- Capacity or rating of a press
4) Number of press stroke per minute- This indicates the speed of ram to operate upon the workpiece
5) Shut height- The distance from top of the bed to the bottom of the ram, with its stroke down and
adjustment up.
6) Press adjustment- The distance through which the ram can be lowered below its shut height position.
4.5 Press working terminology
A simple cutting die is as shown in figure12 below.

[Fig.12 Simple cutting die]

Bed
The bed is lower part of press frame that serves as a table on which a bolster plate is mounted.

Bolster plate
Bolster plate is thick plate secured to the press bed, which is used for locating and supporting the die assembly. Its
thickness is usually 5 to 12.5 cm.

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Die set
Die set is unit assembly which incorporates a lower and upper shoe, two or more guide posts and guide post bushings.
Die
Die is the female part of a complete tool for producing work in a press. It is also referred to a complete tool consisting
of pair of mating members for producing work in press.
Die block
It is the block or a plate which contains the die cavity.
Lower Shoe
The lower shoe of a die is generally mounted on the upper plate of a press. The die block is mounted on the lower
shoe. The guide posts are also mounted in it.
Punch
Punch is the male component of the die assembly which is directly or indirectly moved by or fastened to the press ram
or slide.
Upper shoe
It is the upper part of the die set which contain die post bushings.
Punch plate
The punch plate or punch retainer fits closely over the body of the punch and holds it in proper relative position.
Back up plate or pressure plate
It is placed so that the intensity of pressure does not become excessive on the punch holder. The plate distributes the
pressure over a wide area and intensity of pressure on the punch holder is reduced to avoid crushing.
Stripper
Stripper is a plate which is used to strip the metal strip from a cutting or non-cutting punch or die. It may also guide the
strip.
Knock out
Knock out mechanism is used to remove the workpiece from a die. It is connected to and operated by the press ram.
Pitman
Pitman is a connecting rod which is used to transmit the motion from the main drive shaft to the press slide.
5 Clearance in sheet metal cutting
The die opening must be sufficiently larger than the punch to permit a clean fracture of the metal. This difference in
dimensions between the mating members of the die set is called clearance. When correct clearance is used, a clean
break would appear as a result of extension of the upper and lower fracture towards each other. With an insufficient
clearance additional bands would appear before the final separation. Ductile materials require smaller clearances
(otherwise soft material will be drawn into the gap) and longer penetration of the punch compared to harder materials.
If the clearance is more than the optimum, then
- Penetration is more

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 - Work done is more
- Burr forms
If the clearance is less than the optimum value then
- Peak load is more
- Penetration is slightly more
- Work done is more
- The edge of the product is not smooth.

[Fig. 13 Improper clearance]

Reduction in die clearance reduces the burr, but hastens the blunting of the cutting edges of dies and punches. This
results in frequent resharpening of press tools and decreases the tool life and the number of components the tool can
produce. Generally, a press tool produces thousands of components per shift. It is uneconomical and impracticable to
deburr the millions of components usually produced in mass production runs. So many industries sacrifice tool life to
reduce the inconvenient burr on the sheared components. If the shear cutting edges become dull, the shearing force
will be spread over a larger area so that more plastic deformation is caused in the metal before the stress reaches the
rupture point. Then, even more clearance is necessary, and more energy is required. Sheared edges of work piece may
be work-hardened to such an extent that cracking may occur in subsequent working operations. The use of sharp
cutting edges and annealing after the shearing will help to prevent possible cracking of sheared edges.
The clearance is applied in the following manner:
1. When the hole has to be held to size, i.e. the hole in the sheet metal is to be accurate (punching operation)
and slug is to be discarded, the punch is made to the size of hole and die opening size is obtained by adding
clearance to the punch size.
2. In blanking operation, where the slug or blank is the desired part and has to be held to size, the die opening
size equals the blank size and the punch size is obtained by subtracting the clearance from the die opening
size.
The clearance is a function of type, thickness and temper of work material, harder material requires larger clearance
than soft materials, the exception being aluminum. The usual clearance per side of the die, for various materials is

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given in terms of stock thickness. Typical values range between 4% and 8% of stock thickness. Recommended clearance
is calculated as
C = at
Where
C = clearance
a = allowance
t = stock thickness
Allowance a is determined according to type of metal as shown in table 1

Material Clearance
Brass and soft material 5% of thickness
Medium carbon steel 6% of thickness
Hard steel 7% of thickness
Aluminum 10% of thickness
Plastics 12% of thickness
[Table 1 Clearance for various materials]

The clearance may also be determined with the help of following relation
c = 0.0032 t (fs)0.5mm
Where fs= shear strength of the work piece in N/mm2

[Fig. 14 Section through blanking die]

A section through blanking die is as shown in figure14, shows clearance, land, straight and angular clearance.

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Land- It is the flat usually horizontal surface contiguous to the cutting of a die which is ground and reground to keep
the cutting edges of the punch sharp.
Straight- It is the surface of a cutting die between its cutting edge and the beginning of the angular clearance. This
straight portion gives strength to the cutting edge of the die and also provides for sharpening of the die. This straight
portion is usually kept at about 3 mm for all materials less than 2 mm thick. For thicker materials, it is taken to be equal
to the metal thickness.
Angular clearance- This is provided to enable the slug to clear the die. It is placed below the straight portion of the die
surface. Its value usually varies from 0.25 to 1.5° per side but occasionally as high as 2° depending mainly on thickness
and frequency of resharpening.
Punch and die clearance after considering the elastic recovery of the material- due to springback effect after the
release of blanking pressure, the blank expands slightly. The blanked part is thus actually larger than the die opening
that has produced it. Similarly in punching operation after the strip is stripped off the punch, the material recovers and
the hole contracts. Thus the hole is smaller than the punch which produced it. This difference in size due to elastic
recovery of material depends on blank size, sheet thickness and sheet material. Up to sheet thickness 0.25 mm, this
can be taken as zero. For the sheet thickness from 0.25 to 0.75 mm, it may be taken as 0.025 mm while for sheet
thickness more than 0.75 mm, it may be taken as 0.050 mm.
6 Die and punch sizes

[Fig. 15 Die and punch sizes in blanking operation]

Die size determines blank size Db
Punch size determines hole size Dh
Clearance = c

- For a round blank of diameter Db

Blanking punch diameter = Db- 2c
Blanking die diameter = Db

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- For a round hole of diameter Db
Hole punch diameter = Db
Hole die diameter = Db + 2c
Where c = clearance
7. Cutting force
In cutting operation as the punch in its downward movement enters the material, it need not penetrate the thickness
of the stock in order to affect complete rupture of the part. The distance which the punch enters into the work material
to cause rupture to take place is called penetration and is usually given as percentage of the stock thickness. When a
hard and strong material is being cut, very little penetration of the punch is necessary to cause fracture. The
percentage penetration also depends on the sheet thickness, being smaller for thicker sheets and greater for thinner
sheets as shown in table 2.
Stock thickness 25 20 15 12.5 10 8 6 5 3 2.5 1.6 Below
in mm 1.6
Penetration 25 31 34 37 44 47 50 56 62 67 70 80
% of thickness
[Table 2 Percentage penetration and material thickness]
Important for determining press size
Cutting force = F = fs tL
Where
fs = Shear strength of material
t = Stock thickness
L = Length of cut edge or perimeter of the cut.
When the size of the hole to be punched is smaller than the thickness of the sheet the above equation is found to be
erroneous results because of such small diameters, shear is not the most active force. A more appropriate formula in
such case is
dtf t
F 
3
d
t
Where ft is the tensile strength of the material.
8. Work done for the shearing operation
The work done for the shearing operation can be obtained from
Work done = F X p X t
Where
F- Maximum punch load
P- penetration or the fraction of the depth to which the tool sinks into the metal before cracks run into each other.
Typically value of p range from 17% for partially cold worked aluminum to around 50% for annealed steel.

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9. Effect of shear angle/ shear on punch
Function of shear: Shear is provided on the punch (Fig. 16 below) to reduce the forces required on the punch inturn to
accommodate the operation on a lower capacity machine available in the shop.

[Fig. 16 Shear on punch]

Purpose of shear- The purpose of the shear is to distribute the shearing action over a period of time so that the punch
does not contact the work piece over its entire length at the same time. The provision of shear, as mentioned earlier
does in effect the total work required to complete the shearing operation.
The total work done in shearing with or without the shear is the same. The total travel of the punch to complete the
operation in however increased with the provision of shear.
10. The Stripping force
The stripping force depends on
- the thickness of the material
- size and number of holes and
- location of holes
Small holes in the middle of a sheet or holes in thicker material require more stripping force than the holes in a thin
sheet or holes located near the edge of the work piece. A number of punches located close to each other or punches
with rough walls are comparatively more difficult to strip than single punches with smooth walls.
In general, stripping forces may vary from 2.5% to 20% of the punch force but 5 to 10% is quite satisfactory in most
cases.
The stripping force is calculated as
Fs= kLt
Where
Fs= Stripping force
k= Stripping constant depending upon the material and size and location of the cut

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L= Perimeter of the cut
T= Stock thickness
The value of k is given in the table 3 below
Stock material Stock thickness Cut k
Carbon steel < 1.5 mm At the edge or near a preceding cut 0.0103
< 1.5 mm Other cuts 0.0145
˃ 1.5 mm Any cut 0.0207
Harder material 0.0241

[Table 3 : Value of stripping constant (k) for different applications]

The press selected for the shearing operation must have enough capacity not only to provide for maximum punch force
and the stripping force but also to account for friction and other losses during the process.
11. Minimum diameter of the hole that can be punched
In order for a punch to be able to pierce a sheet, the compressive strength of the punch should be at least equal to the
force required to shear the material. Thus if fs is the shear strength of the material and ft is the compressive strength of
the punch material then,
πdtfs= π/4d2ft

4 f st
d
ft
If ft is assumed to be equal to be 2fs
4 f st
d  2t
2 fs
i.e. the minimum diameter that can be punched is equal to twice the stock thickness. In actual practice usually much
larger holes are punched.
11. Strip layout
This gives the position of the workpieces in the strip and their orientation with respect to one another. The factors
which will influence the strip layout are: economy of material, direction of material grain or fibre, strip stock, direction
of burr, press used, production required, die cost etc.
Material economy is of paramount importance in press work. Blanking being the first operation, raw material economy
can be affected by using the most economical strip layout which can give the highest material utilization. Experienced
press tool designers generally draw at least three strip layouts and compute their material utilization before
commencing the design of the blanked tool is as shown in fig. 17.

Material utilization = Area of blanks from strip/area of the strip before blanking

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 [Fig. 17 Strip layout and material utilization]

The strip layout with maximum material saving may not be the best strip layout, as the die construction may become
more complex which would affect the savings due to material economy unless a large number of parts are to be
produced. Another important consideration in strip layout is the distance between the nearest points of the blanks and
between the blanks and edges of the strip. To prevent the scrap from twisting and wedging between the punch and the
die, this distance must increase with metal thickness. A general rule of thumb is to keep this distance called web at
least 1.5 times the material thickness, hardness, type of operation, shape of blanks etc. may allow web to be thinner.

[Fig. 18 Nomenclature of strip layout]

The nomenclature of strip layout is as shown in fig. 18.
The distance between the blank and the edge of strip known as back scrap may be determined by equation
a = t + 0.015 h
The distance between successive blanks and also the scrap bridge b is given in the table4 below.
Material thickness b, mm
0.8 0.8
0.8 to 3.2 t
Over 3.2 3.2
[Table 4 Scrap bridge values]

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In general softer and thinner materials require large spacing. The feed or advance or length of one piece of sheet
needed to produce one blank is s = w + b
The number of blanks which can be produced from one length of sheet can be found as
N= L-b/s
And scrap remaining at the end of one length of strip may be calculated as
y = L- (Ns + b)
The percentage utilization should not be less than 70% for economical working. However, for complicated shapes of
blanks, it can be less than 70%.
Direction of material grain is to be considered if the cut blanks have to undergo any subsequent operation like bending
or deep drawing. When the sheet metal strip is rolled in the mill grains are elongated in the direction of strip length.
During subsequent bending operation on the blank, to obtain maximum strength from the bent parts, the bends should
be made across the strip or at an angle of 90° to the fibre. Therefore some part prints specify that the fibre is to run in
the direction of an arrow shown on the print. In such cases, the blanks cannot be tipped or rotated to just any position
desired.
Another important consideration in the metal strip layout is whether the stock used will be in the form of a strip or coil
stock. Strip may be passed through the die more than once. The coiled stock is used when: production is high, thinner
metal sheets are used and stock needs to be passed through the die once. Strip stock is used when: production is low,
thicker metal is used and the stock needs to be passed through the die more than once.
When sheet metal is cut in a die, a burr is produced on the die side of the scrap strip and on the punch side of the
blank. If burr has to be on the hidden side, then the expensive operation of removing the burr needs not to be done.
For this, a note of often placed on the part drawing which reads burr down.
During production planning the strip layout has to be such that it allows the die to be designed within the press
capacity. Shear may have to be provided on the punch or die to limit the maximum cutting force within the press
capacity. Another factor is the bed area of the press to the blank are of the strip. The third factor is to have the cutting
forces of the die evenly balanced around the centre line of the press ram.
The following guidelines may be followed when production is main consideration.
1. Low production and thin material
- strip stock and a single pass layout
- cutting of one or more blanks at a time
2. Low production and thick material
- Strip stock and a single or double pass layout
- Cutting one blank at a time
3. High production and thin material
- Coiled stock and a single pass layout
- Cutting of one or more blanks at a time

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4. High production and thick material
- Strip stock and a single or double pass layout
- Cutting of one or more blanks at a time.
Die cost will be higher for higher production and cutting more than once at a time particularly when cutting extremely
complicated blank shapes or when cutting extremely accurate blank sizes. For simple round or square-edged blanks
multiple cutting at one time is often practical. The double pass dies are less expensive than cutting two at a time. So
the designer has to decide while making the stock layout as to which is preferred: more operator time per blank or
more machine time per blank.
12. Principles of Die design
Generally, a die consists of screw, dowel pins, die block, punch, punch plate, punch support, pilots, strippers, pressure
pads, stock stops and automatic stops.
12.1 Screw and dowels
Components of dies are held together by using socket head cap screws. The dowel provides and maintains accurate
positioning of the component, i.e. dowel avoids misalignment. To avoid projection of screw heads, the head is recessed
in counter bored hole. Cap screws that are used to hold die components are counter bored and 1/8 inch deeper than
the cap screw head. This allows additional material for die sharpening.
To position and hold a die component accurately, minimum one cap screw or dowel is necessary for positioning.
Designer can use two dowels but one can also use two or more cap screws. One cap screw is generally sufficient for
small components, whereas in order to hold the die components at least two cap screws are required for large
components.
Normally, screws of diameter 3.8 inch are used for die components of area up to 6 square inch and screws of diameter
½ to 5/8 inch are opted for heavy die components. Dowel diameter is same as that of cap screws. Dowels should be
located diagonally from each other and as farthest as possible to increase accuracy of location.

Fig. 19 (a) Application of screw (b) Application of dowel

All the screws and dowels should be located at 1.5 to 2 times the diameter of screws or dowels from the component
edge. Screw and dowel hole should be placed near to the outer edge of the die block and as far as possible from
blanking contour. Dowel holes extrude through the die components so that dowels can easily removed. The effective

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thread depth for screws should be 1.5 times the screw diameter for general applications and two times the screw
diameter when subjected to shock loads. Threading hard components should be avoided as far as possible. The die
block should be drilled with clearance and counter bored to accept the cap screw. The thread should be cut in the die
shoe. The application of screws and dowels has been shown in fig. 19 (a) and (b).
12.2 Die block
The design of die block depends upon workpiece size and thickness. The type of die and contour of workpiece also play
an important role while designing of the die block. The selection of size of die block also depends upon experience. The
die blocks are made from a solid block of tool steel for small work pieces. Table 5 gives die block thickness with respect
to strip thickness. The distance between the die opening and outside edge of the die block should be 1.25 times the
thickness of the die block for smaller dies.

Strip thickness Die block thickness

(inch) (inch)
Up to 1/16 ¾ to 1
1/16 to 1/8 1 to 9/8
1/8 to 3/16 9/8 to 11/8
3/16 to 1/4 11/8 to 13/8
Over 1/4 13/8 to 2
[Table 5 Die block thickness for mild steel strip]
This distance should be 1.5 to 2 times the die thickness for large dies or when sharp corners are present in the die
opening contour. The solid blocks that are symmetrical face the problem of incorrect assembly, which can be avoided
by fool proofing the die block. Fool proofing is achieved by placing one dowel at some other distance from its nearest
screw hole. It is possible to save a large amount of material by using insert dies in the construction of die blocks. In the
construction of large die block or the complex contour die, die blocks are made in two or more sections in order to save
the tool steel. The die may also be sectioned when the size of the die opening is not large enough to permit internal
machining. In case of failure, only one component needs to be replaced and hence, it is one of the advantages of
sectional die blocks. Fig 20 shows the method of sectioning large die. Sectional components may be screwed and
doweled to a die holder with sections butting against each other. These sections are wide enough to avoid tilting.

[Fig. 20 Method of sectioning large dies]

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Sometimes sectional components are used to tip other component to avoid lateral displacement of the die sections.
This lateral displacement is due to heavy cutting force. This arrangement reduces the cutting forces.
12.3 Punch
The design of the punch mainly depends upon the plan area to be blanked or pierced. Design of the punch also
depends upon the pressure which is required to penetrate through the workpiece. The method of mounting the punch
is determined by the plan area to be blanked or pierced. For example, a punch for small workpiece may require a
punch block for mounting the punch into the die holder, whereas a punch of large workpiece may be made up of solid
block of tool steel and bolted to the punch holder. A punch must withstand the maximum blanking or piercing
pressure. Small punches require a punch support to avoid breakage.
The basic types of punches can be summarized as plain punch, pedestal punch, perforated punch and punches
mounted in punch plate.
12.3.1 Plain punch
This type of punch is economical and easy to operate. It is a simple block of hardened tool steel. The shape of punch
depends upon the required profile. Plain punch is directly mounted onto the punch holder of die set. A plain punch is
shown in fig. 21. When extra length is needed, plain punch is mounted on to the flat punch plate. Screws and dowels
hold plain punch in the same way as they hold solid die blocks. The length and width of plain punch should at least be
equal to the punch height for the stability. When high and unbalanced blanking and piercing pressures are required, it
is necessary to use heights greater than either punch length or width. In such situations, some other kind of punch
should be considered.

[Fig. 21 Plain punch]

12.3.2 Pedestal Punch
These are constructed by machining in a way that leaves a flange around the base of the punch. The pedestal punch is
as shown in fig. 22. Its base area is larger than its cutting face area. Pedestal punches are advantageous because of
large base and solid construction, hence are stable. As cutting force distributed uniformly over large base, pedestal
punches are capable of withstanding heavy cutting force. The flange of pedestal punch should be wide and thick
enough to provide space for holes. These holes are used for mounting.

22
 [Fig. 22 Pedestal punch]
12.3.3 Perforator punches
These types of punches may be fabricated of purchased from market.
Punches mounted in punch plate
Punch plates are used to hold and position the punch. The punch plate is also used to increase the strength of punch.
Perforated punch has rounded head and shank; hence they are easily mounted in punch plates. Rectangular or odd
shaped punches are not easily mounted in punch plates. Figure 23 shows method of mounting.

[Fig. 23 Method of mounting punches in punch plate]

12.4 Punch support

Diameter of piercing punches should not be smaller than thickness of the strip which is to be pierced. If diameter of
piercing punch is smaller than thickness of the strip, diameter of punch shank should be at least twice the hole size and
cutting face should be ground to the hole size for a distance about twice the stock thickness. The punches having more
than 4 inch unguided length are avoided. If the length of the punch is more than 4 inch, a spacer block should be used
in between punch and punch plate. Various methods of supporting slender punches are shown in fig 24 and 25. A quill
that is used to increase the strength of slender punch is shown in fig. 23 (a). The punch is made up of tool steel and can
be easily replaceable if it fails. The punch is assembled in a quill with tight press fie. The quill is made up of mild steel.

23
 [Fig. 24 Methods of mounting slender punches]

[Fig. 25 Methods of supporting slender punches]

Slender punches in stripper plate are supported and guided by sliding fit is shown in fig. 24(b) and 25 (a). The use of
more than one perforator in a single quill is shown in fig. 25 (b). This permits piercing small holes near to each other.
12.5 Punch shedders
The slug and blank sticks to the punch face and comes out with punch during blanking and piercing operation. The slug
sticks to the die wall due to spring back in the blank and slug during normal operation. When the amount of spring back
is proportionate to the stock thickness and area of slug, small holes in thin material show very little spring back and
does not stick to the die wall. Hence slug may adhere to the punch face. Slug may also stick to the punch face due to
heavy lubrication. Sticking of slug can be reduced by using low viscosity lubricants. The sticking of slug can also be
reduced by using shedder pins. Shedder pins break the oil bond between punch face and slug. Shedder pins break the
bond between punch face and slug. The spring operation of shedder is shown in fig 26. The shedder pin is located in
the centre of the punch. The use of shedder pin is limited only for punches of diameter greater than 3/32 inch, concave
shear may be provided on the face of the punch. This helps to avoid it from sticking to the punch face.

24
 [Fig. 26 Spring actuated shedder pins]
12.6 Pilots
The main purpose of a pilot is to position the stock strip accurately. Pilots also bring the stock strip into proper position
for blanking and piecing operation simultaneously. If strip is fed by hand, it may go beyond proper position due to strip
stop. In such a situation, pilot takes it back to proper position in a direction away from the strip stop. Pilot also prevents
buckling of strip. When the strip is fed by hand, under feeding of strip occurs and pilot pulls the strip forward. Diameter
of pilot is generally 0.002 to 0.003 inch smaller than punch diameter for average work and 0.0005 to 0.001 inch smaller
than punch diameter for precision work.

[Fig. 27 Pilot]
Length of pilot is at least ¼ inch longer than punches. In this way, pilot will take care of proper positioning before actual
cutting. Pilot nose contour is shown in fig. 27.
Classification of pilots
Pilots are classified as direct pilot, indirect pilot and spring loaded pilot
Direct pilot
Direct pilots are mounted on punch face. A direct pilot is shown in fig. 28. It acts as misfeed detector, which detects
overfeeding or underfeeding of strip. It find misfeed, it actuates a switch to cut off the electric power to press.

25
 [Fig. 28 Direct pilot]
Indirect pilot
Indirect pilot is used with previously pierced hole at a certain distance from blanking punches. Fig. 29 shows typical
indirect pilot. The distortion is avoided by using indirect pilot as it provides support to strip.

[Fig. 29 Indirect pilot]

Spring loaded pilot
Spring loaded pilot is generally used for workpiece having more than 1/16 inch thickness. A spring loaded pilot is shown
in fig. 30. Spring retracts the pilot from misfeed. This pilot pierces the hole if it is used for thin plate.

[Fig. 30 Spring loaded pilot]

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12.7 Strippers
The main purpose of stripper is to remove the stock from the punch after blanking or piercing operation
Classification of strippers
Fixed stripper
Fixed stripper is solid attached to the die block or die shoe as shown in fig. 31.
Spring operated stripper
Spring operated stripper goes up and down on the shank of the punch.
Channel stripper
Channel strippers are widely used because they are simple in construction and easy in operation.

[Fig. 31 Channel type fixed stripper]

Fixed stripper
A rectangular plate is mounted on the top of the die block. The strip is passed through the milled channel. In general,
the height of the channel should be 1.5 times the stock thickness whereas width must be equal to the summation of
strip width and clearance. The clearance is provided to take care of dimensional variation in the width of strip. Enough
clearance is provided around the punch for its easy removal; but clearance should be less than 1.5 times the thickness
of strip. The back edge of the channel is used as a back gauge to position the strip accurately. A stock pusher is used to
hold the strip against the back edge. It is also desirable to help in reducing the wear. The wear resistance is also
increased by using inserts of mild steel. The wear resistance is increased by pressing hardened dowel pin along with the
back guide. This is shown in fig. 30. The thickness of channel stripper is found out from the size of the socket head cap
screw which is used to hold the strip in position.
Spring operated stripper
This type of stripper is also called pressure pad stripper. Its main advantage over other stripper is that it holds the strip
flat during the operation. Spring operated stripper is shown in fig. 32. Spring operated stripper is generally mounted on
socket head stripper bolts. Spring stripper may also be mounted on rods. To minimize the bending, length of the rod
should provide adequate support to inner diameter of the spring. This is achieved by pressing a dowel of proper
diameter and length into one plate and drilling a clearance hole in other plate to provide passage for dowel to pass
through other plate.

27
 [Fig. 32 Spring operated stripper]
9.8 Guiding stock with spring operated strippers
Guide stock consists of guide rail which is mounted on the die block as shown in fig. 33 (a) and (b). Figure 33 (a) shows
a stripper acting as a pressure pad and withstanding against the workpiece. The stock guide does not make contact
with the stripper. If clamping of strip is not practical, guide rails may be used to avoid stripper from clamping the work.
This is shown in fig, 33(b). If space is limited, button stock strip guide may be used as shown in fig. 34 (a) and (b).
Minimum 3 button guides on each side of the strip will satisfactorily guide the strip. But best method for guiding the
strip is the use of guide rails.

[Fig. 33 Method of guiding stock with spring operated stripper]

[Fig. 34 Method of guiding stock with spring operated stripper]

4.9 Stock stops and automatic stops
The device by which the strip has to be advanced after each blanking is called stock stops. Sometimes dowel pin is used
as a stock stop. After each stroke of the press, an edge of previously blanked hole is pushed against a dowel pin. To

28
release the strip from the pin, enough clearance is provided in a strip channel to allow the stock to be lifted above the
pin during upward stroke of the press. Skilled operator is required for such type of operation.
i) Trip stop
Trip stop is shown in fig. 35. The pawl rises on ratchet principle as the stock is fed forward manually. The pawl drops
and positions the stock accurately against the vertical surface of the pawl after the stock is pulled back by operator.

[Fig. 35 Trip stop]

ii) Shoulder stop
The shoulder stop is shown in fig. 36. It is widely used on progressive dies especially when last operation is cut off or
trimming. When workpiece has same width as the stock and feeding is from one side and scrap is not passed through
the other side, a shoulder stop is easy to use. Shoulder stop is wide and is attached to the die.

[Fig. 36 Shoulder stop]

iii) Automatic stop

[Fig. 37 Automatic stop]

29
Automatic stop is shown in figure 37. It uses pin-ended finger. On the forward stroke, the pin end of finger is lifted by
trip screw. The pin end of finger is dropped onto the top surface of the stock during return stroke. The finger is
mounted loosely on pivot so that it can move endwise. Due to this endwise movement of the finger, its pin end does
not drop onto the top surface of the stock is fed forward. This helps the operator to locate the stock strip accurately.
13. Types and applications of blanking and piercing die
Types of die
Dies are classified to the type of press operation and according to the method of operation. According to the type of
press operation dies are classified as cutting dies and forming dies.
Cutting dies
Cutting dies are used to cut the metal. They use cutting and shearing action for cutting the metal. Examples of cutting
dies are blanking dies, piercing dies, perforating dies, notching dies, trimming dies, shaving dies and nibbling dies etc.
Forming dies
Forming dies change the shape of the blank without removing any stock. Example of dies are drawing dies, bending
dies and squeezing dies.
According to the method of operation, dies are classified as simple dies, compound dies, combination dies, progressive
dies, transfer dies and steel rule dies, etc.
Progressive die
It is also called a follow on die. The progressive die is as shown in figure 38 below. It performs two or more operations
in one stroke of a ram at different stages. First operation is punching, which is followed by blanking. The metal strip is
transferred to the next station in between the stroke to produce a complete work piece.

[Fig. 38 A Progressive die]

When the piercing punch cuts a hole in the strip, the blanking punch draws out a portion of the metal strip in which a
hole had been pierced at a previous station. The metal strip is fed into the die mechanically or manually. The primary

30
stop is pushed in by hand and lead end is then made to contact with it. The press is now made to operate to pierce a
hole at station 1. As the primary stip is released, the strip is transferred to the station 2. The strip contacts with
automatic button die stop at station 2.
During the next stroke, the pilot on blanking punch enters the previously pierced hole which ensures the exact
alignment of the strip to be blanked next. The die stop activation pin pushes the die stop pin below the edge of the
blank. Hence the strip is transferred to the next station on return stroke of the ram. The button die stop pin returns to
its normal position and holds the strip on the inside wall of the blanked hole. During the third stroke, another complete
part is produced and thereafter parts are produced at each stroke of the ram. In a progressive die, force required is
reduced to a large extent due to the staggering of punches. The disadvantage of progressive die is that it makes
balancing of the punches difficult.

Combination dies
In a combination die, cutting action is combined with non-cutting actions i.e. forming. Non-cutting actions may be
bending, drawing, extrusion or embossing. More than one operation is possible in one stroke at a single stage, but the
die is more useful for two operations only. The principle of working of a combination dies is as shown in figure 39
below.

[Fig. 39 Combination die]

The die ring is mounted on the die shoe. The die ring is counter bored at the bottom to allow the flange of a pad to
travel up and down. This pad is held flush with the face of die by a spring. The drawing punch of required shape is
attached to the die shoe. The blanking punch is placed in the punch holder. The stripper (spring operated) strips the
skeleton from the blanking punch. As the workpiece comes in contact with the knock out bar during the return stroke,
knock out removes the part attached to the punch. As the part is blanked, the blank holding comes down. Then the
drawing punch contacts and forces the blank into the drawing die which is made into the blanking punch.

31
Transfer dies
Transfer dies are same as progressive dies, the only difference being that the already cut blanks are fed manually or
automatically from station to station. The first operation is blanking, which is followed by piercing.
14. Centre of pressure
When the irregular shape blank is to be cut, then the summation of shear forces about the centre line of press ram is
not symmetrical. Hence, bending moment will be introduced in the press ram because of which undesirable deflection
and misalignment are produced. So to avoid this, centre of pressure of the shearing action of the die must be found.
While laying out the punch position on the punch holder, centre line of press ram should pass through the centre of
pressure of the blank. This centre of pressure is the centriod/centre of gravity of the line perimeter of the blank. It
should be noted that, it is not the centriod of the blank area.
Centre of pressure can be calculated as below
1. Draw the outline of the part
2. Place X and Y axes in a convenient position
3. The outline of the part is divided into the convenient line elements and numbered as 1, 2, 3 and so on
4. The length l1, l2, l3 etc of these line elements are calculated.
5. The centriod of these line elements is also calculated.
6. The distance of centriod from the X and Y axes are determined. Let x1, x2, x3 etc y1, y2, y3 etc be the distance of
centriod of the line elements from the Y and X axes respectively.
7. The distance of centre of pressure from each axis is determined by using following formula.

l1 x1  l 2 x 2  l3 x3 l1 y1  l 2 y 2  l3 y3
X  Y 
l1  l 2  l3 l1  l 2  l3

X = x distance of centre of pressure and

Y = y distance of centre of pressure.

15. Sheet metal bending

Straining sheet metal around a straight axis to take a permanent bend.

[Fig. 40 Bending of a sheet metal]

32
Metal on inside of neutral plane is compressed, while metal on outside of neutral plane is stretched. Both tensile and
compressive elongation of the metal occur in bending.

15.1 Types of bending

Sheet metal bending could be
i. V-bending- Performed with a V-shaped die
It is used for low production. Performed on a press brake. V-dies are simple and inexpensive.

[Fig. 41 V-bending ]
ii. Edge bending- performed with wiping die

Edge bending is used for high production. During the process pressure pads are required. Dies used in edge bendign are
more complicated and costly.

[Fig. 42 Edge bending]

15.2 Bending die design
The following parameters are required to be considered while designing the bending die.
a) Bend radius (rb)
It is the radius of curvature on inside surface of the bend. If the bend radius is too small, then cracking of a material on
the outer surface takes place. To prevent any damage to punch and die, the bend radius should not be less than 0.8
mm.

33
b) Bend allowance (B)
To calculate blank length for bending, the length of the material in the curved section has to be calculated. The length
of the bend area which is more than blank length before bending is known as bend allowance. Bend allowance is
calculated using the following relation.
B= α(r + kt)
Where, B= Bend allowance along the neutral axis
α= Bend angle in radians
r= Inside bend radius
kt= Distance of neutral axis from inside surface of the bend
= 0.33 t when R < 2t
= 0.5 when R ˃ 2t
t= sheet thickness in mm
c) Bending force or bending pressure
Bending force depends on the stock thickness, bend length, die opening width and type of bend
For V- bending the relation is given by

K .l. ut .t 2
F ,N
w
Where, l= Length of bend, mm

 ut = Ultimate tensile strength, N/mm2

t= Blank thickness
K= Die opening factor varies from 1.2 to 1.33 (For U bending K is 0.67)
w= Width of die opening, mm
Generally w= R1+R2+ C
Where, R1= Punch edge radius
R2= Die edge radius
C= Clearance= t

16. Drawing- Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes.

Drawing is the sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other complex-curved, hallow shaped parts.
Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity and then punch pusher metal into opening. The products of drawing
include beverage cans, ammunition shells, automobile body panels etc.

34
 [Fig. 43(a) Drawing of cup-shaped part (1) before punch contacts work (2) near end of stroke
(b) Work part: (1) Starting blank (2) drawn part.]
A schematic diagram of the process is shown in figure 43. The blank of the desired size is placed and located in the die.
The blank holder descends and holds this blank at its edges. The punch is then moved downwards to produce the
desired cup shape. As the blank is drawn into the die cavity compressive stress is set up around the flange and it tends
to wrinkle or buckle the flange. The punch pushes the bottom of the cup into the die hole and draws the remaining
metal over the edge of the die to form the walls. The drawn cup falls through the opening while the punch and blank
holder return to the top of the stroke for next cycle.
The edges of the punch and die must be provided with generous radii to prevent cutting or tearing of the metal.
Generally punch and die radius of about 5 times the metal thickness is found satisfactory. The radius of the die edge
not be made larger than 10 times the thickness of the sheet otherwise wrinkles are formed in the side walls of the cup.
An air vent is normally provided in the punch to eliminate suction which would hold he cup on the punch during
stripping. The blank holder is used to apply pressure around the edges of the blank pressure otherwise it may buckle
and form wrinkles. Wrinkles are caused due to the fact that the material of the blank in concentric rings outside the
base diameter of the cup is distributed over a wider area and is drawn radially to the size of the cup base over the die
edge. As a result, the outer edges become thicker and wrinkles are formed unless constrained. The retaining pressure
must be just sufficient to keep the edges straight and create a slight radial pressure but the sheet should be able to slip
from under the blank holder towards the die opening.

[Fig. 44 Deep drawing]

35
16.1 Shallow and deep drawing operations
Shallow drawing- When the height of the drawn cup is less than half of its diameter the drawing operation is known as
shallow drawing.
Deep drawing- For cups which have a height greater than half diameter it is necessary to make specific provision to
confine the metal in order to prevent excess wrinkling of the edges. Such operations are called as deep drawing
operations.
Shallow drawing is relatively simple and may be done even with rigid blank holders. Deep drawing needs better control
of blank pressure. Too high blank pressure increases frictional forces. Too low pressure may allow some wrinkles to be
formed. Lubricants are often used with deep drawing operations to reduce friction. Ductile material can be drawn
more easily. During deep drawing operation the walls of the cup become thinner at the radius by bending and thicker
elsewhere by drawing.
Ironing- if clearance between the punch and die is large enough (˃ 0.4t) the walls of the part produced become
progressively thicker towards the top becoming thicker than the original blank thickness. If it is desired to produce a
part of uniform wall thickness or the thickness of the wall is to be lowered the clearance between the punch and die
must be reduced. The metal is thus compressed between the punch and die and forced to flow. This is known as
ironing. The height of the cup is also increased due to ironing. Ironing considerably increases the force required for
drawing and causes rapid wear of the punch and the die.
16.2 Advantages and limitations of drawing
Advantages
1. Low equipment and tooling cost
2. Good surface finish and dimensional accuracy
3. High production rate
4. Long lengths of rounds, tubing, square, angles etc can be produced.
Limitations of drawing
1. Deformation limited to small reductions
2. Production of constant cross-sections only.
3. Lubrication is necessary.
16.3 Defects in drawing
Wrinkling and buckling is avoided by applying a blank holder force through blank holder.
Blank holder force increases friction and hence the required punch load. Therefore, blank holder force should be just
enough to prevent wrinkling of the flange. The edges of the punch and die are rounded for the easy and smooth flow of
metal. Sufficient clearance is also provided so that sheet metal could be easily accommodated in sufficient or large
clearance may result into shearing and tearing of sheet. A drawn cup can be redrawn into a smaller cup but it may
annealed to prevent failure.

36
13.4 Clearance in drawing
Sides of punch and die are separated by a clearance c given by
c= 1.1 t
In other words, clearance is about 10% greater than stock thickness.
16.5 Tests for drawing feasibility
i. Drawing ratio (DR)
Drawing ratio can be most easily defined for cylindrical shape as

Where Db = Blank diameter

Dp = Punch diameter
Upper limit DR ≤ 2.0
The maximum drawing ration possible are tabulated in the table 6 below

t 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 ˃0.5

Thickness ratio X 100
D
Drawing ratio D/d 1.43 1.54 1.67 1.82 1.9 2.0
[Table 6 Maximum drawing ratio]
ii. Reduction (r)
Reduction can be most easily defined for cylindrical shape as

The value of r should be less than 0.5.

iii. Thickness-to-diameter ratio (t/Db)
It is the ratio of thickness of starting blank divided by blank diameter.

The ratio is desirable to be greater than 1%. As the ratio decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases.
16.6 Design of drawing die
If the depth of the cup is up to the half of its diameter then the process is called shallow drawing and if the depth of the
drawn cup exceeds the diameter, it is called as deep drawing
Following are the factors to be considered while designing drawing dies.
a) Radius of draw die (rd)

37
If the draw die radius is too small, the flow of metal resistance increases resulting in cutting of the metal. If the draw
radius is too large, it produces wrinkles in the metal. Hence, draw die radius is generally 4 to 10 times of the blank
thickness.
b) Punch radius (rp)
The edges of the punch must be rounded to avoid cutting or tearing of the metal. Hence punch radius should be at
least 4 times the blank thickness.
c) Draw clearance (C)
To avoid jamming of the blank between the punch and die, the side clearance between punch and die should be more
than the stock thickness. Generally draw clearance is taken 1.25 times of the stock thickness.
d) Blank size calculation
Blank size calculation is the first step in the drawing process. While calculating, it is assumed that blank surface area is
equal to the surface area of the finished shell. When the shell has sharp inside corners, it is calculated as

D  d 2  4dh
Where, D= Flat blank diameter
d=Finished shell diameter
h= Height of the finished shell.
The above relation is applicable when d/r ≥ 20, where r= is the radius of the bottom corner.
When d/r is in between 15 to 20, the relation becomes

D  d 2  4dh  0.5r
When d/r is in between 10 to 15, the relation becomes

D  d 2  4dh  r
e) Number of draws
Height to diameter Number of draws
(h/d) ratio
Up to 0.7 1
0.7 – 1.5 2
1.5 – 3.4 3
3.4- 7 4

[Table 7 Number of draws]

The number of draws can be calculates from the ratio of inside shell height and shell diameter as shown in above table.
f) Drawing force
The force required to draw a shell is given by

D 
F  dt y   C  , N
d 
Where d = Finished shell diameter

38
 t = Blank thickness

 y = Yield strength
D = Blank diameter
C = Constant varies between 0.6 to 0.7.
g) Press capacity
When F is the requires as a means for selecting press capacity, a degree of safety can be introduced into the
expression and some allowance made for friction between the cup and die walls by adding 30% to the force required
for drawing. Hence press capacity can be calculated as

D 
F  1.3dt y   C 
d 
h) Blank holding force
Blank holding force is generally 33 to 40% of the drawing force.

39