(eBook PDF) European Union Law 3rd

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vi

Outline contents

1 Introduction 1
Catherine Barnard, Trinity College, University of Cambridge and Steve Peers,
University of Essex

2 Development of the EU 9
Paul Craig, St John’s College, University of Oxford

3 The EU’s political institutions 37

Steve Peers, University of Essex

4 Constitutionalism and the European Union 71

Robert Schütze, Durham University

5 Legislating in the European Union 97

Kieran St C Bradley, European Union Civil Service Tribunal

6 The effects of EU law in the national legal systems 143

Michal Bobek, Advocate General at the Court of Justice of the European Union

7 EU law: is it international law? 177

Bruno de Witte, Maastricht University

8 General principles of EU law and EU administrative law 198

Herwig C H Hofmann, University of Luxembourg

9 Fundamental rights in the European Union 227

Eleanor Spaventa, Durham University

10 Judicial protection before the Court of Justice of the European Union 262
Albertina Albors-​Llorens, St John’s College, University of Cambridge
11 The internal market and the philosophies of market integration 310
Jukka Snell, University of Turku and Swansea University

12 Free movement of goods 339

Peter Oliver, Visiting Professor, Université Libre de Bruxelles and Martín
Martínez Navarro, European Ombudsman
13 Free movement of natural persons and citizenship of the Union 369
Catherine Barnard, Trinity College, University of Cambridge

14 Free movement of legal persons and the provision of services 409

Catherine Barnard, Trinity College, University of Cambridge with Jukka Snell,
University of Turku and Swansea University

15 Free movement of capital 447

Leo Flynn, Legal Service of the European Commission
viii Outline contents

16 Exceptions to the free movement rules 477

Niamh Nic Shuibhne, University of Edinburgh

17 Competition law 509

Alison Jones, King’s College London and Christopher Townley,
King’s College London

18 Public services and EU law 543

Leigh Hancher, Tilburg University and Wolf Sauter, Tilburg University

19 Economic and Monetary Union 573

Alicia Hinarejos, Downing College, University of Cambridge

20 Labour and equality law 598

Mia Rönnmar, Lund University

21 EU health law 628

Tamara K Hervey, University of Sheffield

22 Environmental law 657

Elisa Morgera, University of Edinburgh

23 European consumer law 686

Geraint Howells, University of Manchester

24 EU external action 710

Geert De Baere, University of Leuven

25 EU criminal law 761

John R Spencer, University of Cambridge

26 Immigration and asylum 791

Steve Peers, University of Essex

27 Brexit: the Legal Dimension 815

Steve Peers, University of Essex and Darren Harvey, University of Cambridge

Index 837
Map of the European Union 860
ix

Detailed contents

Notes on contributors xxv

Table of abbreviations xxvii
Table of legislation xxx
Table of cases lviii

1 Introduction 1
1 Introduction 1
2 The development of EU law 2
3 Themes 4
3.1 Input legitimacy 5
3.2 Output legitimacy 6
4 Conclusion 8

2 Development of the EU 9
1 Introduction 9
2 Nationalism and the origins of the EU 12
3 From ECSC to EEC 13
3.1 European Coal and Steel Community: ECSC 13
3.2 European Defence Community and European Political Community:
EDC and EPC 13
3.3 European Economic Community: EEC 14
4 From EEC to the Single European Act 16
4.1 Tensions within the Community 16
4.2 Single European Act: SEA 18
5 From the SEA to the Nice Treaty 20
5.1 Maastricht Treaty: the Treaty on European Union 20
5.2 Treaty of Amsterdam 22
5.3 Treaty of Nice 24
5.4 Charter of Rights 25
6 From Nice to Lisbon 25
6.1 The Laeken Declaration 25
6.2 Constitutional Treaty 26
6.3 Lisbon Treaty 27
7 Recent challenges for the EU 30
7.1 The financial crisis 30
7.2 Brexit 31
7.3 Migration crisis 31
8 Theories of integration 32
8.1 Neofunctionalism 32
8.2 Liberal intergovernmentalism 33
x Detailed contents

8.3 Multi-​level governance 34

8.4 Rational choice institutionalism 34
8.5 Constructivism 35
9 Conclusion 35
Further reading 36

3 The EU’s political institutions 37

1 Introduction 37
2 The concept of representative democracy 38
2.1 Representative democracy and the EU 39
3 Commission 41
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Composition 41
3.3 Powers 46
3.4 Functioning 48
4 European Parliament 48
4.1 Introduction 48
4.2 Composition 49
4.3 Powers 51
4.4 Functioning 54
5 Council 55
5.1 Introduction 55
5.2 Composition 55
5.3 Powers 56
5.4 Functioning 57
6 European Council 63
6.1 Introduction 63
6.2 Composition 64
6.3 Powers 65
6.4 Functioning 68
7 Transparency of the EU’s political institutions 69
8 Conclusion 69
Further reading 70
Chapter acknowledgements 70

4 Constitutionalism and the European Union 71

1 Introduction: constitutionalism(s) 71
2 Formal constitutionalism: contested supremacy 72
2.1 Legal supremacy: two perspectives 74
2.2 Contested hierarchies: federalism and constitutional pluralism 76
3 Democratic constitutionalism I: popular sovereignty 78
3.1 Unitary constitutionalism: ‘We, the People’ 78
3.2 Federal constitutionalism: ‘We, the Peoples’ 79
4 Democratic constitutionalism II: popular representation 81
4.1 Democratic legitimacy and the Union legislature 81
4.2 Democratic legitimacy and the Union executive 84
 Detailed contents xi

5 Liberal constitutionalism I: separation of powers 86

5.1 The ‘classic’ separation of powers principle(s) 86
5.2 Separating ‘powers’ in the EU 88
6 Liberal constitutionalism II: fundamental rights 91
6.1 Fundamental rights as ‘general principles’ 92
6.2 The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights 94
7 Conclusion 94
Further reading 95

5 Legislating in the European Union 97

1 Introduction 97
2 Forms of legal act (including ‘soft law’) 99
2.1 Regulations 99
2.2 Directives 100
2.3 ‘Rule-​making decisions’ 101
2.4 International agreements 101
2.5 Interinstitutional agreements 101
2.6 Recommendations, opinions, and other non-​binding acts 102
3 Hierarchy of norms 103
4 Competences and conferral 105
4.1 ‘Competence’ as ability and ‘competence’ as power 105
4.2 Conferral 105
4.3 Grants of legislative power (‘legal bases’) 106
4.4 Classification of competences 107
5 Subsidiarity 111
5.1 The subsidiarity test 112
5.2 Protocol No 2: the ‘early warning mechanism’ 113
5.3 Scope of the early warning mechanism 114
5.4 Judicial review of compliance with the subsidiarity test 116
6 Proportionality 117
7 Decision-​making 119
7.1 Legislative and assimilated procedures 120
7.2 Special legislative procedures 123
7.3 Innominate non-​legislative procedures 124
7.4 Consultation and assimilated requirements 125
8 Derived normative measures: delegated and implementing acts 125
8.1 Delegated acts 126
8.2 Implementing acts 128
8.3 Borderline between delegated and implementing acts 132
9 Enhanced cooperation 135
10 Treaty revision 136
10.1 Simplified revision procedures 137
10.2 Ordinary revision procedures 138
10.3 Accession and withdrawal 138
11 The ‘democratic deficit’ 139
11.1 Case law references 139
xii Detailed contents

11.2 Reform of decision-​making procedures and principles 139

11.3 Treaty provisions on democratic principles 140
12 Conclusion 141
Further reading 142
Chapter acknowledgements 142

6 The effects of EU law in the national legal systems 143

1 Introduction 143
2 EU law in the Member States: institutions, procedures, principles 144
3 Direct effect 146
3.1 Van Gend en Loos 146
3.2 The conditions and the real test 147
3.3 Direct effect in action 149
3.4 Differentiation I: types of legal acts 150
3.5 Differentiation II: types of legal relationship 152
3.6 No horizontal direct effect of directives: the rule and the exception 154
4 Indirect effect 156
4.1 The notion 156
4.2 The scope 157
4.3 Interpretation unbounded? 159
4.4 Introducing some limits 160
5 Primacy 161
5.1 The Court’s view 161
5.2 The national views 165
6 National procedures for enforcing EU law rights in the Member States 167
6.1 The not-​so-​autonomous national procedural autonomy 169
6.2 From equivalence/​effectiveness to the principle of effective judicial protection 169
6.3 State liability 170
7 Connecting the dots: the interplay of the different principles 171
8 Conclusion 174
Further reading 175

7 EU law: is it international law? 177

1 Introduction 177
2 EU law as a sub-​system of international law 178
2.1 The EU as an international organization? 178
2.2 The international origins of the European integration process 179
2.3 The later evolution of the European Communities and the European Union 180
3 The specific features of EU law 185
3.1 The incomparability of the EU’s legal features 186
3.2 The primacy of EU law, a federal characteristic? 187
3.3 Finding a name to describe the EU’s specificity 190
3.4 The constitutional perspective on EU law 192
4 The EU as object and subject of international law 194
5 Conclusion 196
Further reading 197
 Detailed contents xiii

8 General principles of EU law and EU administrative law 198

1 Introduction 198
2 Organizational levels and the distribution of powers in implementing
EU law 199
2.1 Conferral of powers on the Union 199
2.2 Implementation of EU law by the Member States 200
2.3 Delegation of powers within the Union 202
3 Criteria for legality 204
3.1 Proportionality 205
3.2 Rule of law: transparency, legality, legal certainty, legitimate expectations 208
3.3 Good administration 214
3.4 Information-​related rights: freedom of information and data protection 219
3.5 The right to an effective judicial remedy and additional rights of defence 220
4 Conclusion 226
Further reading 226

9 Fundamental rights in the European Union 227

1 Introduction 227
2 Historical background and development of the case law 228
2.1 The development of the case law of the Court of Justice 229
2.2 The scope of application of fundamental rights as general principles 231
3 The response of the political institutions: from the 1977 Declaration to
the Lisbon Treaty 235
3.1 Article 7 TEU and the rule of law initiative 237
4 The Charter of Fundamental Rights 238
4.1 The drafting of the Charter 239
4.2 The structure of the Charter 240
4.3 The substantive provisions of the Charter 241
4.4 The horizontal provisions 243
4.5 Protocol No 30 on the application of the Charter to Poland and the UK 250
5 The EU and the ECHR 251
5.1 Background to accession 251
5.2 EU accession to the ECHR 254
5.3 Opinion 2/13: the special nature of EU law 258
6 Conclusion 259
Further reading 260

10 Judicial protection before the Court of Justice of the European Union 262
1 Introduction 262
2 The structure and jurisdiction of the Court of Justice of the
European Union at a glance 263
3 Direct actions 267
3.1 Infringement proceedings 268
3.2 The action for annulment 272
3.3 The action for failure to act 289
3.4 The plea of illegality 290
3.5 The action for damages 291
xiv Detailed contents

4 Preliminary references 293

4.1 What constitutes a ‘court or tribunal of a Member State’? 294
4.2 Types of preliminary references: references on the interpretation
and references on the validity of EU law 295
4.3 Discretion to refer and limits to this discretion 298
4.4 The duty to refer and the exceptions to this duty 300
4.5 Effects of a preliminary ruling 301
5 Interim relief 301
6 The relationship between the Treaty remedies 302
7 Conclusion 307
Further reading 308
Chapter acknowledgements 309

11 The internal market and the philosophies of market integration 310

1 Introduction 310
2 The nature of the internal market: three models 311
2.1 Three models of market integration 312
2.2 The implications of the different models 312
3 The nature of the internal market: the historical experience 317
3.1 The common market 317
3.2 The single market 319
3.3 Economic union? 323
4 The law of the internal market: the power to harmonize 329
4.1 The power 329
4.2 The exceptions 334
5 The law of the internal market: the types of harmonization 335
6 Conclusion 337
Further reading 338

12 Free movement of goods 339

1 Introduction 339
2 The customs union 340
2.1 The concept of a customs union 340
2.2 Goods originating in a Member State and goods in free circulation 341
3 The meaning of ‘goods’ 342
4 Nationality and residence 343
5 Customs duties and charges of equivalent effect 343
5.1 Customs duties 343
5.2 Charges of equivalent effect 343
5.3 Permissible charges 344
5.4 Charges imposed at the internal boundaries of Member States 345
5.5 Remedies 346
6 Quantitative restrictions and measures of equivalent effect 346
6.1 Quantitative restriction: imports and exports 346
 Detailed contents xv

6.2 Measures of equivalent effect: imports 348

6.3 Measures of equivalent effect: exports 353
6.4 Purely national measures 355
6.5 Justification under Article 36 and the mandatory requirements 355
6.6 Remedies 359
7 Internal taxation 360
7.1 Article 110(1) TFEU 360
7.2 Article 110(2) TFEU: competing products 362
7.3 The holistic approach to Article 110 TFEU 364
7.4 Justification 364
7.5 Remedies 365
8 The boundary between the provisions on free movement of goods 365
8.1 The two Danish cars judgments 366
8.2 CEEs and discriminatory internal taxation 366
8.3 What if there are two distinct, but closely linked measures? 367
9 Conclusion 367
Further reading 368
Chapter acknowledgements 368

13 Free movement of natural persons and citizenship of the Union 369

1 Introduction 369
2 Does EU law apply at all? 372
2.1 Introduction 372
2.2 EU nationality 373
2.3 The interstate element 373
2.4 Economic activity 375
3 Which Treaty provision is engaged? 376
3.1 Free movement of workers 377
3.2 Establishment 378
3.3 Services 378
3.4 Union citizens 380
4 Does the EU measure apply to this particular person or entity? 380
5 What rights do migrants enjoy? 381
5.1 Introduction 381
5.2 The right of residence for EU migrants and their family members, and
the principle of equal treatment 382
5.3 Other rights specifically attached to EU citizens qua citizens 392
6 What rules/​practices are prohibited by the Treaty? 395
6.1 Introduction 395
6.2 The shift to market access 396
6.3 The advantage of the market access approach 399
6.4 The criticisms of the market access approach 400
6.5 The response to the criticisms 401
7 Derogations and justifications 402
7.1 Express derogations 402
7.2 Public interest justifications 405
xvi Detailed contents

8 Effect of fundamental rights and proportionality 406

9 Conclusion 407
Further reading 408

14 Free movement of legal persons and the provision of services 409

1 Introduction 409
2 The Treaty requirements 410
2.1 The relevant Treaty provisions 410
2.2 The relationship between Articles 49, 56, and 63 TFEU 416
2.3 Who/what are the subjects of Articles 49 and 56 TFEU? 418
2.4 Establishing a breach 419
2.5 Derogations and justifications 426
3 Secondary legislation in the field of freedom of establishment and
the free movement of services 432
3.1 Introduction 432
3.2 The Services Directive 2006/​123 432
3.3 Financial services 436
3.4 EU company law 439
4 Conclusion 445
Further reading 446
Chapter acknowledgements 446

15 Free movement of capital 447

1 Introduction 447
2 The legal framework and its origins 448
2.1 The evolution of the original rules on capital 448
2.2 Overview of the current provisions 450
3 Material scope of the capital rules 451
3.1 Defining capital 451
3.2 Relationship with other Treaty freedoms 452
4 Personal and geographical scope of the capital rules 456
4.1 Against whom can the capital rules be invoked? 456
4.2 When can an EU national invoke the capital rules against their own
Member State? 457
4.3 Third countries 458
5 Restrictions 459
5.1 Equal treatment and non-​discrimination 459
5.2 What constitutes a restriction? 460
6 Exceptions and justifications 462
6.1 Treaty-​based limitations and exceptions 462
6.2 Justifying restrictions 465
6.3 Procedural requirements applied to justifications and exceptions 471
6.4 The limits of restrictions 471
7 Conclusion 475
Further reading 476
Chapter acknowledgements 476
 Detailed contents xvii

16 Exceptions to the free movement rules 477

1 Introduction 477
2 The Treaty framework: derogations 478
2.1 The role of derogation and the broader legal framework 478
2.2 Derogation and EU legislation 479
2.3 Overview of the Treaty-​based derogation grounds 480
3 The justification framework: public interest requirements 482
3.1 From ‘mandatory requirements’ to ‘overriding requirements in the
public interest’ 483
3.2 Discriminatory and non-​discriminatory restrictions 485
4 Application of the derogation and justification frameworks 487
4.1 General principles 488
4.2 The jurisdiction of the Court of Justice 493
4.3 The burden and standard of proof 494
4.4 Fundamental rights as limits to free movement 494
5 Proportionality 498
5.1 Overview of the proportionality test 498
5.2 Appropriateness 499
5.3 Necessity 499
5.4 Proportionality as a tool for mediating public interest 500
6 Derogating from the free movement of persons 502
6.1 Deportation and Directive 2004/​38: general principles 503
6.2 Deportation on economic grounds 506
7 Conclusion 507
Further reading 508

17 Competition law 509

1 Introduction 509
2 Overview of EU competition law 509
2.1 EU competition law 509
2.2 Objectives of EU competition law 510
3 Enforcement and consequences of infringement 512
3.1 Enforcement by the Commission and NCAs 513
3.2 Private enforcement through civil litigation in the national courts 514
4 Who do Articles 101 and 102 TFEU apply to and when do they apply? 514
4.1 Undertakings 514
4.2 May (appreciably) affect trade between Member States 517
4.3 Exclusions 518
5 Identifying anti-​competitive agreements and conduct 519
5.1 The use of economic analysis 519
5.2 Form and effects: type 1 and type 2 errors 520
6 Article 101 TFEU 521
6.1 Introduction 521
6.2 Agreements, concerted practices, and decisions 521
6.3 Identifying which agreements infringe Article 101 TFEU 523
7 Article 102 TFEU 532
7.1 Introduction 532
xviii Detailed contents

7.2 Dominance 532

7.3 Identifying conduct which infringes Article 102 535
8 Conclusion 542
Further reading 542

18 Public services and EU law 543

1 Introduction 543
2 Public services and SGEIs 544
2.1 What are public services? 544
2.2 Recognition of SGEIs by the Treaty 546
2.3 Conclusion 548
3 Commercial monopolies 549
4 State aid 550
4.1 Introduction 550
4.2 The State aid regime 551
5 Case studies 557
5.1 The utilities sectors 558
5.2 Social services 564
5.3 Health care 565
5.4 Lessons from the case studies 570
6 Conclusion 570
Further reading 571

19 Economic and Monetary Union 573

1 Introduction 573
2 History and design of EMU 574
3 The Stability and Growth Pact and measures of coordination
before the crisis 576
4 The euro area crisis and its relationship to EMU 577
5 Addressing the crisis 580
5.1 Stabilization: the ECB and bailouts 581
5.2 Budgetary and economic coordination measures 586
5.3 Financial regulation and banking union 590
6 The future of EMU 592
6.1 Democratic legitimacy 593
6.2 ‘Reserved domains’ and the disappearing state 594
7 Conclusion 596
Further reading 597

20 Labour and equality law 598

1 Introduction 598
2 The legal framework and evolution of EU labour and equality law 599
2.1 The evolution of EU labour and equality law and Treaty developments 599
2.2 Law-​making and legal sources in EU labour and equality law 601
 Detailed contents xix

2.3 The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union and the
constitutionalization of EU labour and equality law 603
3 Labour law 604
3.1 Restructuring of enterprises and information, consultation, and worker
participation 604
3.2 Freedom to provide services, freedom of establishment, and national
collective labour law 608
3.3 Flexible work and working conditions 612
3.4 EU and national labour law in times of economic crisis 615
4 Equality law 617
4.1 Introduction to equality law 617
4.2 Gender equality 619
4.3 Comprehensive equality and protection against discrimination on
other grounds 623
5 Conclusion 626
Further reading 627

21 EU health law 628

1 Introduction 628
2 Patient mobility 629
2.1 Migrant workers: Coordination of health care systems 629
2.2 Freedom to receive health care services 630
2.3 The ‘Patients’ Rights Directive’ 635
3 Health care professionals 637
3.1 The ‘sectoral’ approach 637
3.2 The ‘general’ approach 638
3.3 Concerns about EU law on health professionals 639
3.4 Implications of Brexit 641
4 Health care institutions 641
4.1 Freedom of establishment/​freedom to provide services 642
4.2 Competition law 643
4.3 Assessment 645
5 Medical devices and pharmaceuticals 646
5.1 Medical devices 647
5.2 Pharmaceuticals 647
6 Blood, organs, and human tissue 649
6.1 Patient safety 649
6.2 Intellectual property 650
7 Public health 651
8 Global contexts 653
8.1 Health through the common commercial policy 654
8.2 Health through development cooperation 654
9 Conclusion 656
Further reading 656
xx Detailed contents

22 Environmental law 657

1 Introduction 657
2 The legal framework 658
2.1 Evolution of EU environmental law 658
2.2 Objectives of EU environmental policy 664
2.3 Principles of EU environmental policy 665
2.4 Environmental integration 668
2.5 Sustainable development 669
3 Nature protection 670
3.1 The Wild Birds Directive 670
3.2 The Habitats Directive 671
4 Water 674
4.1 The Water Framework Directive 674
4.2 The Common Implementation Strategy 676
5 Climate change 679
5.1 An overview of the 2009 Climate and Energy Package 679
5.2 Components of the package 680
5.3 International reach of the package 682
6 Conclusion 684
Further reading 685

23 European consumer law 686

1 Introduction 686
2 The negative impact of EU law on national consumer protection rules 687
3 Consumer protection and the internal market 688
3.1 Legal basis 688
3.2 EU consumer law as a driver for greater cross-​border trade 689
3.3 Legislative approach 691
4 Information policy 691
4.1 Information obligations 692
4.2 Information and behavioural economics 693
5 Right of withdrawal 693
5.1 Justification 693
5.2 Harmonization 694
5.3 Effective consumer protection? 694
6 Rules establishing consumer expectations 695
7 Product safety 696
7.1 Public law control and consumer protection 696
7.2 General Product Safety Directive 696
8 Product liability 697
9 Unfair terms 698
10 Sale of goods 699
11 General comments on substantive rights 700
11.1 Goods and services 700
11.2 General standards 700
11.3 Channelling of liability 701
 Detailed contents xxi

11.4 Minimum content 702

11.5 Extent of harmonization 704
11.6 Cross-​border-​only rules 705
12 Enforcement and redress 705
12.1 Methods of enforcement 706
12.2 Access to justice 706
12.3 Alternative dispute resolution 707
12.4 Collective redress 707
13 Conclusion 708
Further reading 709
Chapter acknowledgements 709

24 EU external action 710

1 Introduction 710
2 The foundations of EU external action 711
2.1 In search of consistency and effectiveness 711
2.2 The principle of conferral 712
2.3 The distinction between ordinary EU external action and the CFSP 713
2.4 The CFSP 714
3 The existence of EU external competences 717
3.1 The fundamentals 717
3.2 Implied competences 718
4 The nature of EU external competences 720
4.1 The fundamentals 720
4.2 Exclusive external competence on the basis of Article 3(2) TFEU 721
4.3 Consequences of exclusive competence 724
4.4 Non-​exclusive competences 726
5 Decision-​making in EU external action 729
5.1 The ordinary Union method 729
5.2 The CFSP 732
5.3 The High Representative and the European External Action Service 737
6 External representation and international agreements 738
6.1 External representation 738
6.2 International agreements 739
7 Managing the vertical division of EU external competences 745
7.1 Mixed agreements 746
7.2 Sincere cooperation 748
8 Managing the horizontal division of EU external competences 754
8.1 Pre-​Lisbon 754
8.2 Post-​Lisbon 755
9 Conclusion 758
10 Postscript 759
Further reading 760

25 EU criminal law 761

1 Introduction 761
xxii Detailed contents

2 What is EU criminal law? 761

2.1 Why does EU criminal law exist? 762
2.2 Tensions 763
2.3 Evolution and sources 765
3 Organs 771
3.1 OLAF 771
3.2 Europol 772
3.3 Eurojust 773
3.4 The European Public Prosecutor 774
4 Cooperation between law enforcement agencies 776
5 Mutual legal assistance and mutual recognition 778
5.1 What is mutual recognition? 778
5.2 The EAW: its origins, and its main features 779
5.3 Criticisms of the EAW 780
5.4 Mutual recognition: the UK’s current position 782
6 Harmonization of substantive criminal law 783
7 Harmonization of criminal procedure 785
8 Conclusion 790
Further reading 790

26 Immigration and asylum 791

1 Introduction 791
2 The legal framework 791
2.1 Prior to the Treaty of Amsterdam 792
2.2 The Treaty of Amsterdam 793
2.3 The Treaty of Lisbon 794
3 Visas and border control 795
3.1 Overview and legal framework 795
3.2 Border controls 795
3.3 Visa policy 797
4 Irregular migration 798
4.1 Overview and legal framework 798
4.2 Adopted legislation 799
5 Legal migration 803
5.1 Overview and legal framework 803
5.2 Legislation 804
5.3 Case law 804
6 Asylum 807
6.1 Overview and legal framework 807
6.2 Qualification for international protection 809
6.3 Reception conditions for asylum seekers 811
6.4 Asylum procedures 811
6.5 Responsibility for applications 812
7 Conclusion 813
Further reading 814
 Detailed contents xxiii

27 Brexit: the Legal Dimension 815

1 Introduction 815
2 Withdrawing from the EU pre-​Lisbon 815
2.1 Public international law 815
2.2 The European Union 817
3 Article 50 TEU: the decision to withdraw 819
3.1 Must Article 50 be used to withdraw? 819
3.2 ‘Constitutional requirements’ 820
3.3 Notifying the decision 823
3.4 Can notification be withdrawn? 825
4 Article 50: withdrawal negotiations 825
4.1 The Article 50 process 825
4.2 Scope of Article 50 830
4.3 Substantive issues 832
5 After Brexit 835
6 Conclusion 836
Further reading 836

Index 837
Map of the European Union 860
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Capitulations
Capiz
Capodistria
Cappadocia
capped
caprice
capriciously
Caprivi
Capron
capstone
capstones
Capt
Captain
Captains
captives
captivity
captor
captors
capture
captured
Captures
capturing
Capuchins
car
caravan
carbide
carbines
carbon
carbonates
carbons
carborundum
card
cardboard
Cardenas
Cardinal
cardinals
cards
care
cared
career
careers
careful
carefully
careless
carelessly
carelessness
cares
careth
Carew
cargo
Caribbean
caricatures
caring
Carinthia
Carl
Carlisle
Carlist
Carlos
Carmel
Carmich
carnage
CARNEGIE
carnival
Carnot
Caro
Carolina
Carolinas
Caroline
Carolines
Carolinian
carotid
carpenter
carpet
carpetbag
carpets
carriage
carriages
Carrie
Carried
carrier
carriers
carries
Carrington
CARROLL
Carron
carry
carrying
Carrère
cars
cart
carte
Carter
Carthage
cartridges
carts
Cartwright
carved
carving
carvings
cascos
case
Casella
Caserta
cases
Casey
cash
cashiered
cashiering
cashiers
Casimir
Casino
casks
Caspe
Caspian
CASSATION
Cassatt
Cassel
cast
caste
Castelar
Castelin
castes
Castillia
Castillo
Casting
castings
Castle
Castro
casts
casual
casualties
casualty
cataclysm
Catacombs
catalog
cataloged
CATALOGUE
cataloguing
CATALONIA
Catalonians
catamaran
Catanduanes
Catandunanes
cataract
cataracts
catastrophe
CATASTROPHES
catch
catching
categorical
category
cathedra
Cathedral
cathedrals
cathode
Catholic
Catholica
CATHOLICS
Catholicus
Catholiques
Catt
Cattle
Caucasian
Caucasus
caucus
caught
Cause
caused
causes
causeway
causing
caustic
caution
cautionary
cautious
cautiously
Cavaignac
cavalcade
Cavalieri
Cavalotti
CAVALRY
cavalryman
cavalrymen
Cave
Cavendish
cavernous
cavil
Cavite
cavity
Cavité
Cay
Cayetano
Cayley
Cañas
Cd
ce
cease
ceased
ceaseless
ceases
ceasing
Cebreco
Cebu
Cecil
cede
ceded
cedes
ceding
cedula
ceiled
ceilings
celebrate
celebrated
celebrates
Celebrating
Celebration
celestial
Cell
cellar
cellars
celle
Celli
cells
cellulose
cement
cemented
cemeteries
Cemetery
Censo
Censor
censors
censorship
censure
censured
censuring
census
censuses
cent
centavos
centenary
centennial
Center
centered
centering
centers
centigrade
CENTRAL
centralised
centralization
centralized
Centre
centred
centres
Centrum
cents
centum
centurial
centuries
century
cependant
Ceram
cereals
cerebral
cerebro
ceremonial
ceremonies
Ceremonious
ceremoniously
Ceremony
Cerero
Certain
certainly
certainty
certificate
certificates
certified
certifies
certify
certifying
certitude
Cervantes
CERVERA
Cespedes
cess
cessation
cession
cessions
Cet
cette
Cettigne
Ceylon
cf
Ch
Chad
Chadwick
CHAFFEE
CHAI
chain
chains
chaio
Chair
Chairman
chairmanship
chairmen
chairs
CHAKDARRA
Chakosi
CHALDEA
Chaldees
Chaldæa
Challemel
challenge
challenged
Challenger
challenges
challenging
Chaltin
chamber
Chamberlain
CHAMBERS
Chamot
Champ
champion
championed
champions
Champs
Chan
Chanak
chance
chanced
Chancellor
Chancellorship
Chancery
chances
Chang
change
changed
changer
changers
changes
changing
channel
channels
CHANNING
Chantabûn
chao
chaos
chapel
chapels
chaplain
chaplains
Chaplin
Chapman
chapter
chapters
Chapultepec
character
characterised
characteristic
Characteristically
Characteristics
characterize
characterized
characterizes
characters
charge
chargeable
charged
charges
charging
chargé
Charilaos
chariot
chariots
charitable
charities
Charity
Charlemagne
Charles
Charleston
Charlestown
Charlotte
charm
charming
charms
Charpentier
charred
chart
charted
charter
Chartered
chartering
charters
charts
chase
chased
chasse
chastisement
chastisements
chastising
chastity
chastizes
Chatrousse
Chattanooga
chatter
chattered
chattering
chau
Chaudie
Chaudiere
Chauvinism
Chavannes
Chaylard
che
cheap
cheapen
cheapened
cheapening
cheaper
cheapest
cheapness
Cheapside
Chebar
check
checked
checking
checkmated
checks
cheek
cheered
cheerful
cheerfully
cheering
cheerless
cheers
Chefoo
Chekiang
Cheliabinsk
Chemawa
chemical
chemicals
chemist
CHEMISTRY
Chemnitz
Chen
Cheng
Cheops
Cherbuliez
Cherche
Cherif
Cherihon
cherish
cherished
cherishing
Chermside
Cherokee
CHEROKEES
Cheshire
Chesney
chest
Chester
chests
Cheth
Chevalier
Cheyenne
Chi
chia
Chiang
Chiangsi
chiao
Chiaochou
Chicago
Chichester
Chickamauga
Chickasaw
CHICKASAWS
chicken
chief
chiefly
chiefs
chieftain
chieftains
Chieftainship
Chien
chih
Chihli
Chihuahua
Chikusi
Chilcat
Chilcoot
child
Childcrs
Childers
childhood
childish
childless
children
Chile
Chilean
Chileans
CHILI
Chilian
Chilkat
chill
chills
chilly
Chilocco
chimed
Chimelli
chimera
Chin
China
Chinaman
Chinamen
chinaware
Chinchou
Chine
Chinee
CHINESE
CHING
Chingkiang
Chinkiang
Chippewas
Chita
Chitral
Chitralis
chloroformed
Cho
Choate
Choctaw
CHOCTAWS
choice
choked
cholera
Cholmondeley
choose
chooses
choosing
chose
chosen
Choshu
chou
Chovevi
Chow
Chozen
Chris
Christ
Christendom
CHRISTIAN
Christiani
Christiania
Christianity
Christianized
CHRISTIANS
CHRISTINA
Christlich
Christmas
Christopher