..

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 1

Sources of Water
 Rainwater - rooftop rainwater harvesting, catchment
and storage dams.
 Groundwater - spring water collection, dug well,
drilled wells, subsurface harvesting systems.
 Surface water - protected side intake, river-bottom
intake, floating intake , sump intake.
 water obtained from desalination.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 2

Types of Water
 Atmospheric Water – Through transformations,
Participates in water circulations in Nature.
 Oceans, inland seas, costal zones, and estuaries –
 River, reservoirs, lakes, and wetland - Surface water.
 Groundwater –
 Soil water.
 Glaciers, icebergs, and ground ice.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 3

Potable Water
 Def. Potabilis Latin for drinkable. Improved water -
safe enough for drinking.
 WHO water fact sheet 2012 approx. 1.8 billion people
globally have no access to safe water.
 Quantity depends on; physical activity, age, health
issues, and environmental conditions. Up to 16l/day in
hot climates.
 Quality – Most developed countries tap water meets
drinking water quality standards.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 4

Mineral nutrients
 Potable water contribution to mineral nutrients intake
is unclear.
 Calcium, Zinc, Manganese, phosphate, Fluoride and
Sodium are present is PW is small quantities.
 Fluoride while beneficial in low concentrations, can
cause dental problems and other issues when present
at high levels.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 5

Water-Related Diseases:
transmission routes
Transmission Diseases Causes Control
Route
1 Water borne (or - Cholera Drinking faecal Improve water
washed - Typhoid material quality
- Dysenteries
2 Water washed - Skin and eye Lack of water for Increase water,
infections proper hygiene accessibility and
- Louse borne reliability
typhus - Improve
hygiene practices

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 6

Water-Related Diseases: Cont.
3 Water based Schistosomiasi - Pathogen Control snail
s (penetrating requires populations
skin) aquatic envt for - Reduce surface
- Guinea worm part of life water
(ingested) cycle contamination
- Eating
insufficiently
cooked aquatic
species

4 Water related - Sleeping Insects that bite - Destroy

insect vector sickness or breed near breeding sites
- Filariasis wate - Use mosquito
- malaria netting

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 7

Biochemical Water Related Health
Conditions
Fluorides in water –
 High levels >10 mg l–1 – asso-d with dental fluorosis’-
(yellowish or brownish striations or mottling of the
enamel).
 Low levels of fluoride, less than 0.1 mg l–1 were
associated with high levels of dental decay.
 skeletal fluorosis- Osteosclerosis, ligamentous and
tendinous calcification and extreme bone deformity

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 8

Fluoridation and de-fluoridation of
drinking water
 Water fluoridation- controlled addition of fluoride
to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay.
 Defluoridation is needed when the naturally occurring
fluoride level exceeds recommended limits.
 A 1994 WHO expert committee suggested a level of
fluoride from 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L (milligrams per litre).

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 9

Water Treatment-Rural setting
Restricted to;
 Where there is absolute requirement for treatment
 Where proper plant operation and maintenance can
be secured and supervised
 +become involved in the spread of sudden water-
borne epidemics.
 Cheap vs costly investment
 Consider possibility of expansion in future.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 10

Water Treatment Cont;
 In rural conditions removal of offending substances in
order of priority - : turbidity, colour, iron and
manganese, and carbon dioxide.
 sanitary survey - series of bacteriological analyses
should reveal the possibility of contamination by
pathogenic organisms.
 Treatment processes which may be applied include
sedimentation, filtration, aeration, and chlorination

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 11

Plain Sedimentation
 Can be done in natural or impounded reservoirs
Effects
Reduction in turbidity - dependent on the nature of
the suspended material and the settling time allowed.
Reduction in bacteria - Simple holding of water in a
reservoir will reduce the total number of bacteria
originally present, because they die off faster than they
reproduce.
Storage.
Colour reduction

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 12

Slow Sand Filtration
 Gives good results and requires a minimum of operational
and maintenance skill.
 More practical in treatment of water under the following
conditions :
 (I) gravity system of water supply;
 (2) raw water of reasonably good quality bacteriologically
but subject to possible contamination.
 (3) water generally low in turbidity.
 For bacteriological control of the filtered water, chlorine
may be used.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 13

Aeration
 Aeration is useful under certain specific conditions;
 To control tastes and odours: caused by dissolved
gases such as hydrogen sulfide.
 Increases the oxygen content of natural waters which
are not already saturated with it and, in so doing, helps
to remove the flat taste of rain-water and distilled
water.
 To precipitate iron and manganese. iron is in the
form of ferrous bicarbonate or ferrous sulfate-oxidized
to ferric oxide (Fe,O,) will be formed at pH 7.0, then
sediments.
14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 14
Aeration cont.
 To expel carbon dioxide : Excessive CO2, make a
water aggressive and dissolve the exposed iron in the
water-piping system. Aeration can be useful in the
removal of CO 2 which escapes into the air.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 15

Chlorination
 the most practical method of disinfecting water by
chemical means.
 Chlorine reacts with both organic and inorganic ,free
chlorine is produced which has bactericidal effect.
 Can be used alone or in combination with other
methods.
 Dosages; In rural settings is rather high-residual
chlorine of 0.5 p.p.m. (mg/l after 30 minutes' contact
period will be sufficient to achieve ordinary
disinfection.
14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 16
Chlorination cont
 Amoebic cysts may require 2 p.p.m. free residual
chlorine after 30 minutes' contact.
 The most common form of chlorine used NaOCl or
Ca(OCl)2.
 The batch method of mixing is most commonly used.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 17

Comparison of Treatment
Processes
Process What it accomplishes Constructio Operation Operation
n cost Cost attention
Holding Turbidity and Bacteria High Low Low
reservoir reduction
Slow sand Turbidity and Bacteria High Relatively Medium
filter reduction low
Aeration Expulsion of gases, Iron High Low Low
precipitation
Chlorinati Reduction in bacteria Low Relatively High
on high

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 18

Household Purification of Water
 Boiling - effective whether the water is clear or cloudy,
relatively pure or heavily contaminated with organic
matter.
 destroys all forms of disease organisms usually
encountered in water : bacteria, spores, cercariae,
cysts, and ova.
 To be safe, water must be brought to a " rolling " boil.
 Boil water in the same container in which it is to be
cooled and stored,
 Expensive, alters the taste of water.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 19

Chemical disinfection
 Chlorine – effective against the bacteria commonly
associated with water-borne disease.
 In the usual doses, it is not effective against certain cysts
and ova, nor against organisms embedded in solid
particles.
 highly polluted water containing large quantities of organic
matter, or cloudy water, is not suited for chlorination.
 Turbid water can be filtered, and when clear it can be
successfully chlorinated.
 Preparation Water Guard, Laundry bleaches reconstituted
to 1%, chlorinated lime, commercial tablets- Halazone",
"Chlor-dechlor", and " Hydrochlonazone".

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 20

Iodine
 a first-class disinfecting agent.
 Tincture of iodine - 2 drops of 2% tincture of iodine are
sufficient for 1 litre (1 quart) of water.
 Cloudy or muddy, or water having noticeable colour, even
when clear, is not well suited for disinfection with iodine.
 There is no harm in using high amounts of iodine, but the
higher dosage will produce a medicinal taste.
 Effective against amoeba cysts, cercariae, leptospira, and
some viruses as well.
 Some of the commercial names are" Globaline ", " Potable
Aqua ", and " Individual Water Purification Tablets ". These
tablets appear to be among the most useful disinfecting
devices developed to date.
14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 21
Filtration
 There are 2 types of filter commonly used in the
treatment of household water supplies :
 The sand filter, which is relatively coarse. remove
cysts, ova, cercariae, and similar relatively large
organisms,
 The ceramic filter, which is of a finer texture.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 22

Urban water treatment processes;
 Purification system involves a sequence of processes,
from physical removal of impurities to chemical
treatment.
 Include initial and final filtering, coagulation,
flocculation, sedimentation and disinfection.
 passing raw water through coarse filters to remove
sticks, leaves and other large solid objects.
 chemicals added to the raw water to facilitate
coagulation.
 water is stirred, the alum causes the formation of
sticky globs of small particles made up of bacteria, silt
and other impurities
14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 23
Water Treatment cont.
 Water is then routed to a series of settling tanks where
the globs sink to the bottom. This settling process is
called flocculation.
 After flocculation, the water is pumped slowly across
another large settling basin.
 This sedimentation or clarification process, much of
the remaining solid material accumulates at the
bottom of the basin.
 The clarified water undergoes filtration
 The filtered water is then treated with chemical
 disinfectants
14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 24
Urban water treatment processes;
.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 25

Quality control tests;
 Bacteriological analysis
 This is the isolation and enumeration of organisms
that indicate the presence of faecal contamination.
 May also indicate the efficiency of treatment process.
 Indicator of integrity and cleanliness of distribution
systems in operational monitoring.
 Indicator organisms;
 Escherichia Coli – Present in human faeces in
concentrations up to 109 per gram. Its found in
sewages

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 26

Bacteriological analysis cont
 Total coliform bacteria - Total coliform bacteria
include a wide range of aerobic and facultatively
anaerobic, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming bacilli.
 Escherichia coli is a subset
 occur in both sewage and natural waters. Some of
these bacteria are excreted in the faeces of humans
and animals.
 Total coliforms should be absent immediately after
disinfection, and the presence of these organisms
indicates inadequate treatment.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 27

Physicochemical analysis
 Chlorine residual- Free chlorine or residual chlorine or
both
 PH – Tested at the same time as residual chlorine-
efficacy of disinfection is dependent on PH >8 is less
effective.
 Turbidity- affects the acceptability, an indicator of
efficiency of treatment since its affects the chlorine
demand. Turbid water may stimulate growth of
bacteria. < 1NTU of JTU, less than 5 is acceptable

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 28

Aesthetic parameters
 Colour – Maybe due to the presence of coloured
organic matter, metals such as iron and manganese of
highly coloured industrial waste.
 Taste and odour- Odour caused mainly by presence of
organic substances or industrial pollution. Water
should be free of objectionable taste and odour.

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 29

Other health related parameters
 Fluoride – Esp. where its known to occur naturally
 Nitrate – Intense farming
 Lead – Areas where it has been used in plumbing
 Chromium – Where its mined
 Arsenic - where its known to occur naturally
 Pesticides - where its used a lot locally

14/02/2021 G. MOOKA, 2021 30