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PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. There are many variations, but they typically look something
like this. So, now I'll answer on your screen. A programmable logic controller is basically a small computer
that can carry out pre-programmed outputs based on inputs and a set of specific rules. These PLCs are used in
commercial and industrial applications to control systems with minimal and sometimes even zero manual
intervention. The operations of a PLC can be a simple on-off control based or based on the status of the input or
a more sophisticated response based on calculations,

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sequence and logic. So, before PLCs, controls were carried out by VIA banks of relays, so the image on the
right. Each relay controlled dedicated inputs and outputs based on physical wiring. Relays would control other
relays to form logic controllers. So, for example,

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with a simple AND gate, only when two inputs are energized, so this one, this one, and this one. So, when
these two are energized, only when the relay output energized, so mosty gunning atong bulb. These inputs
could be sensors or they could be outputs from other relays. So, to change the operation, the physical wiring
had to be changed.

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So, the physical connections had to be altered if a different response was ever required. So, these old banks of
relays were vast in size and very complex. So, the image on the right is an example of an elevator relay bank.
And on the left is a relay bank from an old electrical substation. So, as you can imagine, these are not going to
be easy to change and finding faults can be very difficult and time consuming.

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So, with the invention of solid state electronics and microchips, the command logic part of the bank relays
could be replaced with software logic. And so PLCs quickly took over. PLCs vary widely on their application,
that they all monitor their inputs. They make a decision based on a stored set of rules, and from those, they
then have output commands to automate a process. We often find relays used in combination with PLCs.

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The relays can directly deal with automation tasks and communicate with the PLC. This reduces the amount of
programming required on the PLC and also free up storage space. Now, PLCs are widely used. So, for
example, when you check a bag at the airport, the bag is given a barcode. And it enters the conveyor belt.
Then, the PLC scans the barcode and based on a set of rules,

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decides if the bag is diverted to either domestic or international routes. So, the upper left image. The next PLC
scans the barcode and decides which city the bag needs to be diverted. So, it goes to the upper right. If you
have a PLC, you scan it in your bag. So, the next PLC decides which gate it also needs to be diverted. So, it
goes to the next PLC and decides whether to choose gate 1 or gate 2.

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And if all goes to plan, then the bag will arrive at the correct gate. So, these are the examples of PLC
operations. Now, let's talk about the main parts of PLCs. First, we have the input modules. So, in this input
modules, we have the field modules or field sensors. These are the physical connections between the outside
world and the PLCs. These can be digital inputs such as simple on-off switches,

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bimetallic temperature strips, presence or motion sensors or even a float switch. These digital inputs can only
provide information on whether something is either on or off and nothing in between. So, for that, we will need
an analog input. So, for example, a simple control knob which changes from 0 to 100%. Now, this will go
through a voltage transformer to give 0 volts at 0% and 10 volts at 100%.

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The PLC can scale the input to match the sensitivity required for very accurate output control. It could also
convert the voltage into current using resistors and ohms law. The amount of current usually measured in
milliamps tells the PLC whether something is performing between on and off. Now, on your screen are
samples of analog inputs. So, on your left is a resistance temperature detector.
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At the center is a pressure sensor and on the right is a stream gauge. Now, the voltages or current readings
from these inputs are converted into a digital equivalent number that can be understood by the central processing
unit. Input modules will perform four main tasks. They sense when a signal is received, they convert the signal
voltage into the correct signal for the CPU.

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Then, they isolate the PLC from the input voltage or current signal. And then, they send the corrective signal
to the CPU. The CPU or central processing unit is the brains of the operation. It holds the program or software
that decides what outputs are required by applying rules to the input signals. The CPU typically consists of a
microprocessor, which does the work based on the input value and the logic in the program.

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You also have a memory chip. So, this memory chip is where the program is stored. This will also store the
output history, any faults, or alarms. Then, you also have other integrated circuits. These can be things such
as Modbus or LAN connections, which allow us to remotely communicate. Sometimes, we reprogram or even
monitor the device. Now, we have an output module or field output devices.

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So, this device provides signals to the device you are controlling. So, on your screen are examples. On the
left is an indicator light. Next, a solenoid bulb. Then, we have a motor starter and variable frequency drive.
Now, there are some parts or accessories that are used with PLCs, such as batteries, to keep the PLC alive in
the event of a power failure. So,

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there will also be a small screen for user interface to allow some configurations. So, also, there might be a time
clock and calendar to operate the device at a correct time. And also, there will also be a separate power supply
to provide low voltage used by the CPU as well as input and output modules. The basic operation of a PLC is to
perform a pre-programmed output depending on the input signal by following a set of rules. The PLC
completes the following stages in its basic operation.

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First, there is the input scan, which detects the state of the inputs. Then, the program scan to see what needs
to be done. Then, it will execute the program logic to actually implement what the rules state. Then, it must
update the outputs to operate output devices based on the program requirements. Finally, we have this
housekeeping for self-diagnostics, communications, and other reportings.

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Now, we have this scan time. This scan time is the time which it takes to complete all the stages. Now, this
depends on the sensitivity, the resilience, and system processing time. Analog inputs tend to take longer time
to process compared to more simple digital on-off inputs as what you can see on your screen. For example,

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a water tank might have a very fast scan time of 2 milliseconds. This will prevent overfilling, but a room
temperature control can have much lower, perhaps 100 milliseconds as seen on your screen. Now, on your
screen is an example of a simple response. Now, we have a bimetallic strip, a temperature sensor, PLC, and a
boiler. The bimetallic strip bends as it becomes hot and cold,

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so we can use this to detect if the room is at the desired temperature, and from this, controls the boiler. When
the room is at the correct temperature, the circuit is complete, and the PLC receives a signal so the boiler is off.
When the room temperature drops, the circuit is no longer complete, and the PLC detects each change on the
input. It reacts by sending an output signal to turn the boiler on. Now, this is very simple, and we could also
use a simple relay to achieve this.

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However, a PLC is better because it has a time function, so it can check the time before switching on the
boiler. For example, a building might be empty at night and on weekends, so we don't want the boiler to turn
on them. The PLC is told the room is too cold, so it checks the time and date to see if it's allowed to turn on,
and then based on this, decides whether to turn on the boiler or leave it off. We can then add extra functions
and inputs,

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so for example, a motion sensor on the input. The thermostat tells the PLC that the room is too cold. Now, the
PLC will check the time to ensure it is allowed to turn the boiler on, and now it can also check to see if the
room is occupied. For example, there could be a public holiday that isn't listed on the calendar, so the building
is empty, so the boiler doesn't need to be turned on. Now, in this next, more sophisticated example, we have a
thermistor,

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a PLC, as well as an actuator. The thermistor can provide a temperature scale rather than a simple on-off input,
like the bimetallic strip. The actuator valve can open anywhere between 0 and 100% to control how much water
is provided to the heat room. For this, we would use a PID control loop. A PID control loop, which stands for
proportional, integral, and derivative control. PIDs essentially control the valve position to ensure it only
opens enough to suit the difference between the room's desired temperature and the room's actual temperature.

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For example, if the room temperature drops very slightly, we don't want the heating valve to instantly open
100%, because the room will heat too quickly, and this will overshoot the desired temperature. At this point, it
will then instantly turn off and the cycle will repeat. Instead, we want the valve to gradually open in proportion
to the demand. So if there is a small temperature difference,

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the valve slowly opens a small amount. If there is a large temperature difference, the valve opens further and
faster. It then decreases as it approaches the desired temperature until the valve finds the perfect position to
maintain the desired room temperature. Now let's have a more complex example. In many commercial
buildings, the heating or cooling system will use a control strategy known as an optimizer. This learns over a
period of time how quickly the building heats up and cools down.

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It then starts the heating or cooling system at the optimal time before the building will be occupied. For
example, if the staff are due to turn up and start the work at 9am, the heating system knows that it will need to
turn on at 7am to ensure that the rooms are all at the correct temperature. Now let's say this system has a PLC
with the optimizer software installed. This controls an actuator valve for the heating system.

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This system also has two pumps which are set up in duty and standard configuration, so only one pump runs at
a time. The PLC will decide which pump to turn on based on whichever has the lowest number of previous
runners. The PLC will monitor a flow sensor to detect if the pump turns on when told to do so. If the pump
fails to turn on, the PLC receives an alarm and it will cut the power. It then tells the other pump to start.

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However, before the heating system and pump start, the PLC will check with the clock. Should the heating
turn on today or if so, what time will the building be occupied? Now the clock says yes, the scheduled
occupancy is 9am. Then the PLC checks the current temperature of the room and calculates the difference
between this and the desired temperature. It then checks the outdoor temperature to calculate how long it will
take to heat the building because on a very cold day there will be a greater heat loss and so this will take longer
time from the PLC.

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Now the PLC calculates what time it needs to turn the heating system on so that the building is at the desired
temperature ready for 9am.